W.'\J''\ 




: ^-i^^^ '^ 



4 o 



r.-- ^^'% '-^w.' /\ •-^•° ^-^'^'^ 

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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES 



RELATIVE TO THE 



XUTRITIYE YALUE AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS 



ALBUMEN, STARCH, AND GUM, 



SINGLY AND EXCLUSIVELY USED AS FOOD. 



BEING THE 



PRIZE ESSAY<OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION FOR 1857. 



BY 

WILLIAM A. HAMMOND, M.D., 

ASSISTANT SUEGEOSr U. S. AKMY ; COREESrONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OP 
NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 



Quern sequimur? quove ire jubes? ubi ponere sedes? 
Da pater auguriuni, atque auimis iUabere nostris ! 



PHILADELPHIA: 
T, K. AND P. G. COLLINS, PRINTERS. 

1857. 



ERRATA. 

Page 7, 3d line from bottom, for "Your," read '■^ Four." 

Page 8, 7th line from top, for "nutritious," read "nutrition." 

Page 36, Table II, in column total, line variation in weight, insert "28994.20." 

Page 36, Table II, in column mean, line variation in weight, ybr "28994.20," 

read "2899.42." 

Page 44, line 8, for " Table II," read " Table III." 

Page 62, Table VI, in column total, line variation in weight of body, for 

"359.71," read "389.71." 

Page 65, line 17, /or "469.71," read "389.71." 

Page 77, Table X, in column albumen, line variation in weight, for " 28994.20," 

read "2899.42." 

Page 77, Table X, column starch, line variation in weight, for "4697.00," read 

"38.97." 



^^.*- ^*W A^-*^ (^-t^^ C^t.'-y^ ^W^^*-*i -"^J *-^ 



EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES. 



X 



■•i 



jf«*»»i-a ■»-> 



/ 



.JK- 



. •*^*v;-s^ -j»^ ^Xi •.-^-^s, 



EXPERIMENTAL RESEAECHES 



KELATIVE TO THE 



NUTRITIVE VALUE AM PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS 



ALBUMEN, STARCH, AND GUM, 



SINGLY AND EXCLUSIVELY USED AS FOOD. 



BEING THE 

PRIZE ESSAY OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION FOR 1857. 



BY 

WILLIAM A.' HAMMOND, M.D., 

ASSISTANT SURGEON U. S. ARMY ; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF 
NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA. 



Quem seqitimur ? quove ire jubes ? ubi ponere sedes ? 
Da pater augurium, atque animis illabere nostris ! 



PHILADELPHIA: 
T. K. AND P. O. COLLINS, PRINTERS. 

- 1857. 



EXPERIMENTAL MSEAHCHES. 



INTRODUCTION. 

From the first moment of existence to its termination, two pro- 
cesses are constantly progressing in the healthy organic being. 
The first of these, Nutrition, is that by which the several tissues 
of the body are primarily formed, and subsequently developed 
and nourished ; the second. Decay, is the direct antagonist of the 
former, and through it, those portions of the organism which have 
performed the office in the economy for which they were assimi- 
lated, are decomposed into simpler substances, and after undergo- 
ing continued metamorphosis, are eventually excreted from the 
system. The continuation of these forces constitutes life, the ces- 
sation of either of them, for even a limited period, induces death. 

The present memoir embraces the consideration of these actions, 
as they occur in the human system, under certain fixed conditions 
of alimentation, and is especially intended to show by actual ex- 
periments, in what manner they are affected by albumen, starch, 
and gum, when singly and exclusively used as food. 

It does not comport with the character of this essay to enter 
into an elaborate detail of the ordinary course and phenomena of 
nutrition, or of the destructive metamorphosis of the animal tissues, 
neither would this be necessary, for, the works of Liebig, Carpen- 
ter, and Draper, and the erudite and philosophical treatise of 
Lehmann, are so readily accessible to the profession, as to render 
such a procedure a work of supererogation ; yet, a few words in 
relation to some of the principal points connected with them, may 
not be altogether out of place, and with a statement of the scope 
of the present investigations, and of the methods employed in the 
necessary analyses, may serve as an introduction to the more im- 
mediate subjects of experiment. 

1* 



6 

The food which is required by man to maintain a proper degree 
of activity in the several functional actions of the system, and to 
repair the waste in the tissues induced by them, may be divided 
into four classes. 

1st. The protein-compounds ; albumen, fibrin, casein, gluten, &c., 
whose most important element is nitrogen, and whose office in the 
organism is particularly of a histogenetic character. 

2d. The fats; which serve for the maintenance of the animal 
heat by undergoing oxidation into carbonic acid, and water, enter 
into the composition of the primary cells of the tissues, and are 
probably, active agents in the solution and metamorphosis of the 
nitrogenous articles of food. 

3d. The carbo-hydrates ; starch, sugar, gum, &c., some of which, 
like the fats, serve to support the heat of the body, and which, 
within the system, may undergo transformation into them. 

4th. Inorganic substances ; under which head are included water, 
and certain minerals which enter essentially into the composition 
of the blood and tissues. 

Besides the above, various other substances, such as alcoholic 
liquors, coffee, tea, spices, &c., are frequently taken into the 
stomach with the food, strictly so called, which, though not con- 
tributing directly to the nutrition of the body, are yet often ser- 
viceable in promoting digestion, and restraining the too rapid waste 
of the animal tissues. 

Though albumen (the type of the protein-compounds) contains 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in addition to nitrogen, and is, 
therefore, jja?* excellence^ the tissue-forming material, it has been de- 
termined by experiments upon the inferior animals, that a suffi- 
ciency of such food to sustain vitality for any length of time, can- 
not be assimilated by the digestive organs; and that, unless fat, 
starch, or some other of the respiratory aliments, together with a 
proper amount of inorganic salts, be also ingested, the animal soon 
perishes with all the symptoms of starvation. 

In order, therefore, to keep the vital functions at their maximum 
healthy standard of action, it is essential that the food should be so 
adjusted in quantity and quality, as to subserve all the purposes of 
plastic formations, and, at the same time, maintain the calorific pro- 
cess at its due degree of activity. 

Though instinct and experience are generally sufficient to make 
such an arrangement of aliments as is adequate to fulfil the ordi- 
nary requirements of the system, yet, observation is constantly 



teaching us, tlmt these guides are not of themselves always correct 
in their indications, and that disease, and even death, are frequently 
induced from the want of a more enlightened system of dietetics. 

An extensive series of observations is necessary, before we can 
arrange, such a system ; before we can so proportion the different 
classes of food to the individual as to be able to determine, a priori, 
how much of each should be ingested under certain defined con- 
ditions and circumstances. Such investigations should especially 
embrace the determination of the quantities and qualities of the 
egesta under definite conditions of food, mental and physical 
exercise, sleep, &c. ; repeated analyses of the blood should be made, 
and at the same time, note taken of all the physical, physiological, 
and pathological circumstances, capable of influencing the results. 
In addition to the correct ideas of nutrition, and the other physio- 
logical processes, which researches of this nature carried on for a 
long period would give us, we should also be far advanced towards 
the attainment of that exactness in medical science, to which all 
our efforts should be directed. • 

The theory at present received, explanatory of the process by 
which the disintegration and metamorphosis of the animal sub- 
stance occurs, may be briefly stated as follows : — 

No part or organ of the body can exercise its functions without 
a certain portion of the tissue entering into its composition losing 
its vitality. Interstitial death is thus coeval and coexistent with 
life. 

The bodily material which has become devitalized, re-enters the 
circulation, and mingles with the general mass of the blood. "No 
organized substance, no part of any plant or animal, after the ex- 
tinction of the vital principle, is capable of resisting the chemical 
action of air and moisture.'" The effete tissue meets in the blood- 
vessels with both oxygen and water, and also with a temperature 
which experiment has demonstrated to be that at which decomposi- 
tion most readily takes place. Under the combined influence of 
these agents, the worn-out material is resolved into less complex 
substances, and is at length, under new forms, eliminated from the 
system. 

Your great channels serve to rid the organism of the products 
resulting from the decay of its component parts; the lungs, through 
which carbonic acid, water, and a small portion of nitrogen escape ; 

' Liebig's Letters on Chemistry, London ed., p, 211. 



8 

the skin, eliminating principally water, with some carbonic acid, 
and salts; the intestines, through which (in addition to the unas- 
similated residue of the food) decomposed bile, gases, &c., are ex- 
creted; and the kidneys, giving exit to water, salts, and especially 
nitrogenous substances. 

As previously remarked, in order to exhibit fully the extent of 
the nutritious and regressive metamorphosis of tissue in a definite 
time, and under certain conditions, the ingesta and excreta of the 
same period should be carefully measured, and the nature and 
quantities of their several constituents exactly determined. In 
addition, the weight of the body should be accurately taken at 
stated intervals during the continuance of the investigations, and 
observations frequently made of the density, moisture, and tempe- 
rature of the atmosphere. 

The ensuing researches, though conducted generally on this plan, 
are yet far from being perfect, and can only be regarded as afford- 
ing approximative results. In tlie present state of our knowledge, 
th^ difficulty, if not impossibility, of estimating accurately the total 
amount of oxygen abstracted from the inspired air, and retained in 
the system, and the loss from the lungs, and the skin separately, is 
a bar to precise investigation. Nevertheless, I am sensible that the 
experiments detailed in this memoir will prove valuable as contri- 
buting to a fuller understanding of the effects upon the human sys- 
tem of the different articles of food used, and as indicating the value 
of these substances as aliments. 

The investigations were all instituted upon myself. During their 
continuance, no other food than that experimented with was taken 
into the system. An interval sufficient to restore the organism to 
its normal condition was suffered to elapse after each series, before 
the following one was commenced. During this interval, I lived 
upon a full and nutritious diet, and endeavored so to arrange the 
ingesta as to supply the economy with those substances which it 
most needed. 

My usual manner of living, during each of the succeeding series 
of experiments, was as follows: — • 

I arose from bed at 6| A. M., and retired at lOi P. M. Eight 
hours of the twenty-four were accordingly passed in inactivity, the 
remaining sixteen were apportioned in the following manner. 
Eight were occupied in conducting the necessary analyses, and in 
other work of the laboratory; four were given to chemical and 
physiological studies; and four were taken up with the duties of 



9 

my profession, physical exercise, recreation, &c. The exercise was 
quite limited, consisting of walking about one thousand yards per 
day. Each period of twenty-four hours is reckoned from 7 A. M. 
to the same hour the ensuing morning. 

The following determinations of the egesta were made for each 
period of twenty-four hours as above defined: — 

I. The quantity of urine. 

A. Water. 

B. Solids. 

a. Urea. 
h. Uric acid. 

c. Chlorine. 

d. Sulphuric acid. 

e. Phosphoric acid. 

/. Residue of solid matter. 

II. The quantity of feces. 

A. Water. 

B. Solids. 

a. Ether extract. 
h. Alcohol extract. 

c. Water extract. 

d. Insoluble residue. 

III. The amount of cutaneous and pulmonary transpirations (cal- 
culated). 

Besides these observations on the egesta, the weight of the body 
was ascertained at the close of each period. Observations were 
also made of the state of the pulse, and the temperature of the body, 
three times during the day. The latter was always determined in 
a room, the temperature of which was 60° F., by placing a delicate 
thermometer under the tongue. 

The height of the barometer and thermometer (mean of three ob- 
servations) is also given for each day. 

On the first and last day of each series of researches, an analysis 
of the blood was made. 

In addition to the above, microscopical and chemical examina- 
tions of the saliva, urine, and feces, were often made, which are not 
referred to, unless unusual results were obtained. Thus, the re- 
action of the saliva was always determined, but is not mentioned, 
unless it differed from the normal condition by being neutral, or 



10 

acid. The reaction of the urine and feces is not stated, unless it 
was neutral or alkaline — these excretions being usually acid. The 
urine was also frequently tested for the presence of albumen and 
sugar, and submitted to microscopical examination. The feces 
were likewise often examined with the microscope. 

In performing the requisite analysis, I made use of the following 
methods. It will be seen that, wherever it was practicable, the 
volumetric process was employed. This was done, not only be- 
cause it yields more accurate results than the method of precipitat- 
ing and weighing, but also because it is more easy of execution, 
and requires less time. I have merely indicated the special methods, 
without going into detailed descriptions of them.' 

Urine. — The whole quantity of this excretion for the twenty-four 
hours was accurately weighed. 

The water and solids were estimated by evaporating to as perfect 
dryness as possible, over sulphuric acid, in the vacuum of an air- 
pump, a weighed portion of the whole quantity of urine passed in 
twenty-four hours. The loss of weight indicated the amount of 
water, and the weight of the residue, the quantity of solid matter 
contained in this portion. By simple calculation, these were found 
for the total amount of urine evacuated during the day. This pro- 
cess is open to the objection, that it is impracticable by it to de- 
prive the specimen of urine of all its water. The quantity of this 
latter remaining, when a good vacuum is kept up, is, however, very 
small, and, upon the whole, the results obtained are more exact 
than when evaporation by heat is practised, as the decomposition 
of the urine, which always attends this latter process, is entirely 
avoided. 

The urea was determined by a titrited solution of the nitrate of 
mercury, as originally proposed by Liebig. 

The uric acid, by precipitation with hydrochloric acid from a 
known quantity of the urine, and subsequent weighing. 

The chlorine, by Liebig's method with the nitrate of mercury. 

The sulphuric acid, by a titrited solution of chloride of barium. 

The phosphoric acid, by Liebig's process with a titrited solution of 
perchloride of iron. 

' For full accounts of all the analytical processes made use of in these expert 

ments, and for much other information valuable to those engaged in physiologico- 

hemical investigations, the reader is referred to Von Gorup-Besanez' Anleitung 

zur zoochemischen Analyse, a work which has not yet found its counterpart in the 

English language. ■ ' 



11 

The residue of solid matter was found by deducting the sum of the 
above constituents from the total amount of solids. 

Feces. — The whole quantity of the twenty-four hours was first 
accurately weighed. 

The water and solids were determined by taking a known weight 
of the feces (when more than one stool occurred in the twenty-four 
hours these were previously well mixed), and evaporating it to dry- 
ness in a chloride of calcium bath at a temperature of 220° F., till 
upon repeated trials it ceased to lose weight. The loss showed the 
proportion of water, and the weight of the dry residue that of the 
solids in the portion submitted to examination. The amount of 
each in the whole quantity of feces was then calculated from these 
data. 

The ether^ alcohol, and water extracts, were severally deterriained as 
follows : — 

A weighed quantity of the dry feces, obtained as above described, 
was, in the first place, exhausted with ether in Von Bibra's appa- 
ratus. The residue was then treated with alcohol of .83 specific 
gravity, till this substance failed to extract anything more. The 
substance remaining was then submitted to the action of distilled 
water, till it was thoroughly exhausted. The extracts obtained by 
these means were then evaporated, dried at the temperature proper 
for each, weighed, and the quantity of each in the whole amount of 
dry feces calculated. The sum of the whole quantity of these ex- 
tracts, deducted from the whcjle amount of dry feces, gave the inso- 
luble residue. 

The amount of loss from the skin and lungs, collectively, was 
found, when the body lost weight, by adding the amount of loss to 
the sum of the ingesta, and subtracting from the aggregate the sum 
of the excretions from the kidneys and intestines. When the body 
gained weight, the amount of gain was subtracted from the sum of 
the ingesta, and the sum of the known egesta deducted as before. 
The result, in either case, was the loss from the skin and lungs. 

The weight of the body was determined by a balance capable 
of turning with the hundredth of a pound, when loaded with 250 
pounds. 

In the analysis of the blood, I made use of Scherer's method, 
which embraces the determination of the water, solids, albumen, 
extractive, and salts of the serum separately, and the ivater, solids, 
fibrin, blood-corpuscles, albumen, extractive, salts, and fat, of the blood 
as a whole. Scherer's process, though not altogether free from ob- 



12 

jection, is pronounced by Professor Lebmann' to be tbe best we at 
present possess. 

The microscope employed in these researches was a very fine 
one of Powell and Lealand's construction, with object glasses rang- 
ing from 1 to g inch focal distance. 

• It is proper that I should state, that I am 28| years of age, 6 feet 
2 inches in height, and measure 38 J inches around the most promi- 
nent part of the chest. My weight during the last three years has 
ranged from 215 to 230 pounds. My habit of body is rather full, 
temperament sanguineo-nervous. I am of sedentary habits, rarely 
taking much physical exercise, unless with some specific object in 
view other than the exercise. I have never indulged freely in alco- 
holic liquors, and very seldom use them now; tobacco I do not use 
in any form. For the last three years my health has been excel- 
lent. For a year previous to this period, I was troubled with 
symptoms indicative of disease of the heart, but no organic affec- 
tion could be discovered on thorough examination, and by care and 
change of air, I entirely recovered. At the time of commencing 
these experiments my health was never better. 

In order to show the usual condition of my system, and of the 
several excretions, and thus to afford data on which to base a more 
correct estimate of the effects of the several articles of food experi- 
mented with than could otherwise be formed, I instituted upon 
myself a preliminary series of investigations, the details of which 
are here stated. 

During this prefatory series of researches, I ate such articles of 
food as my appetite called for. It was, as I found by experience, 
almost impossible to measure the quantities of the different alimen- 
tary substances ingested, when, as in this instance, no fixed rule of 
diet was adopted. The liquids, however, were susceptible of easy 
approximate determination, and the quantities of these are accord- 
ingly stated. 

The apportionment of the day, as regarded mental and physical 
exercise, recreation, sleep, &c., was the same as previously stated, 
and the conditions generally as arranged for the main subjects of 
inquiry were not materially altered. 

In this, and in each of the succeeding series of experiments, all 
figures expressive of the quantities of the ingesta, egesta, and con- 

' Physiological Chemistry, vol. i. p. 593 (Am. ed.). 



13 

stituents of tlie latter, refer to Troy grains. The weiglit of the 
body is given in pounds and hundredths Avoirdupois.' 

This series continued five days. As the total weight of the daily 
ingesta was not determined, no measurement of the loss from the 
skin and lungs could be made in these investigations. 

first day. 

Ingesta. 

Breakfast; hot bread and butter, and beefsteaks. Luncheon: cold 
beef, and bread and butter. Dinner ; beef soup, roast beef, potatoes, 
maccaroni^ and custard. During the day draiik 4420 grains coffee, 
and 17250 water. 



.GESTA. 




Kidneys. 




Whole quantity of urine 20258.68. 




Water .... 


19185.48 


Solids 


1078.20 


Urea 


628.85 


Uric acid . 


13.27 


Chlorine . 


124.50 


Sulphuric acid . 


45.86 


Phosphoric acid 


60.13 


Residue 


210.59 


Intestines. 




Whole quantity of feces 2310.47. 




Water .... 


1702.37 


Solids .... 


608.10 


Ether extract 


75.94 


Alcohol extract 


111.38 


Water extract . 


128.32 


Insoluble residue 


292.36 



My pulse was at 7 A. M. 85 per minute, at 2 P. M. 88, and at 10 
P. M. 80.— Mean 84.33. 

The temperature of the body at the same hours was respectively 
97.5", 98°, and 98°.— Mean 97.83°. 

At 3 P. M. 1525.73 grains of blood were drawn from the median 



. ' The pound, Avoirdupois, is equivalent to 7000 grains Tioy. The hundredth is 
consequentlj 70 grains Troy. 



basilic vein, 
follows : — 



14 



This, upon analysis, was found to be constituted as 



1000 parts of serum 
Water . 
Solids . 



Albumen 
Extractive 
Soluble salts 



908.42 
91.58 



76.18 

4.27 

10.22 



90.67 
Difference . . . .91 
In 1000 parts of serum were contained 
11.92 of inorganic salts. 



1000 parts of blood- 
Water . 
Solids . 



Fibrin . 

Blood corpuscles 

Albumen 

Extractive 

Soluble salts . 

Difference 



780.29 
219.71 



, 2.41 
143.19 
, 65.43 
, 4.02 
, 9.11 

224.16 
4.35 



The whole quantity of inorganic salts 
in 1000 parts of blood was 11.68. In 
1000 parts defibrinated blood were 2.24 
fat. 



The weight of the body at the end of the twenty-four hours was 
226.45 pounds. The mean height of the barometer was 29.211 
inches, and of the thermometer 43°. 



second day. 
Ingesta. 

BreaJcfast; buckwheat cakes and butter, broiled ham, boiled eggs. 
Luncheon; cold ham and bread and butter. Dinner; beef soup, 
roast beef, potatoes and beets. Drank 5000 grains of coffee, and 
18200 water. 



Kidneys. 






Whole quantity of urine 22756.37. 




Water .... 


21488.15 


Solids 




1286.22 


Urea . 




790.11 


Uric acid . 




10.58 


Chlorine . 




151.28 


Sulphuric acid . 




50.72 


Phosphoric acid 




66.13 


Kesidue 




199.40 


Intestines. 




Whole quantity of feces 2445.69. 




Water .... 


1681.68 


Solids 




764.01 



15 



Ether extract 
Alcohol extract 
Water extract . 
Insoluble residue 



142.40 
125.18 
202.41 
294.02 



At 7 A.M. my pulse was 82, at 2 P.M. 90, aud at 10 P.M. 83.^ 
Mean 85. 

At the same periods, the temperature of the body was respectively 
98°, 98.5°, and 98.5°.— Mean 98.33°. 

At the end of the twenty-four hours my weight was 226.52 
pounds; showing an increase of .07 pound, or 490 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.341 inches, of the 
thermometer 46°. 

The quantity of food ingested on this day was somewhat greater 
than usual. Towards evening I had slight headache, which, how- 
ever, disappeared before bedtime; slept well. 

third day. 
Ingesta. 

Breakfast; hot bread and butter, and beefsteak. Luncheon; cold 

ham, and bread and butter. Dinner; beef soup, roast chicken, 

potatoes and cabbage, rice pudding, with wine sauce. Drank in 

the twenty-four hours 4250 grains of cofi'ee, and 23500 water. 

Egesta. 
Kidneys. 

Whole quantity of urine 21250.17. 

Water 20224.47 



Solids .... 


. 1025.70 


Urea .... 


620.50 


Uric acid . 


11.57 


Chlorine . 


142.19 


Sulphuric acid . 


35.71 


Phosphoric acid 


47.31 


Eesidue 


168.42 


Intestines. 




Whole quantity of feces 2041.76. 




Water .... 


1537.63 


Solids .... 


504.13 


Ether extract 


89.14 


Alcohol extract 


95.17 


Water extract . 


112.35 


Insoluble residue 


207.47 



16 

The pulse at 7 A. M. was 81, at 2 P. M. 86, and at 10 P. M. 84.— 
Mean 83.66. 

The temperature of the body at the corresponding hours was 
respectively 98°, 98.5°, and 97.5°.— Mean 98°. 

At the end of the day the weight of the body was 226.1:2 
pounds; a loss from the previous day of .10 pound, equivalent to 
700 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.241 inches, and of the 
thermometer 4:1°. 



fourth day. 
Ingesta. 

B real-fast; hot bread and butter, and beef hash, highly seasoned. 

Luncheon; cold beef tongue, and bread and butter. Dinner; stewed 

beef, potatoes, maccaroni, and blanc-mange; ate also a supper at 

10 P. M. of oysters (preserved in hermetically sealed cans), and 

bread and butter. Drank in the twenty-four hours 5000 grains of 

coffee, and 21500 water. 



Egesta. 




Kidneys. 




Whole quantity of urine 20523.45. 




Water 


19388.27 


Solids .... 


1134.18 


Urea 


710.62 


Uric acid . . . . 


10.91 


Chlorine . . . . 


131.46 


Sulphuric acid . 


44.32 


Phosphoric acid 


53.87 


Eesidae 


183.00 


Intestines. 




Whole quantity of feces 2204.11. 




Water , . 


. 1472.89 


Solids .... 


731.22 


Ether extract 


60.39 


Alcohol extract 


67.48 


Water extract . 


106.17 


Insoluble residue 


497.18 


At 7 A. M. my pulse was 81, at 2 P. M 


84, and at 10 P. M 



Mean 82.33. 



17 

At tlie same hours the temperature of the body was respectively 
97°, 97.5°, and 98°.— Mean 97.50°. 

The weight of the body at the end of the twenty-four hours was 
226.50 pounds; an increase of .08 pound, equivalent to 560 grains. 

The height of the barometer was 28.965 inches, and of the ther- 
mometer 40°. 



fifth day. 

Ingesta, 

BreaJcfast; hot buckwheat cakes and butter, and beefsteak. 
Luncheon; cold ham, and bread and butter. Dinner; beef soup, 
roast venison, potatoes, cabbage, and maccaroni, preserved citron- 
melon, and milk. During the day drank 4800 grains of coffee, and 
20200 water. 



Egesta, 




Kidneys. 




Whole quantity of urine 19684.92. 




Water .... 


18698.29 


Solids .... 


986.63 


Urea 


521.75 


Uric acid . . . . 


12.02 


Chlorine . 


141.26 


Sulphuric acid , 


49.30 


Phosphoric acid 


51.84 


Residue 

• 


210.46 


Intestines. 




Whole quantity of feces 2467.58. 




Water .... 


1975.41 


Solids .... 


492.17 


Ether extract 


85.14 


Alcohol extract 


88.60 


Water extract . 


98.52 


Insoluble residue 


224.91 



My pulse at 7 A. M. was 83, at 2 P.M. 88, and at 10 P. M. 85.— 
Mean 85.33. 

The temperature of the body at the same periods was respect- 
ively 98°, 98.5°, and 97.5°.— Mean 98°. 

At 3 P. M. I abstracted 1293.25 grains of blood from the median 



18 



basilic vein, which, upon analysis, was found to possess the folio w- 
inof constitution : — 



1000 parts of serum — 




1000 


parts of blood — 




Water . 


. 909.57 


Water . 


782.46 


Kolids . 


. 90.43 


Solids . 


217.54 


Albumen 


. 72.21 




Fibrin . 


. 2.36 


Extractive 


. 5.32 




Blood-corpuscles 


141.25 


Soluble salts 


. 12.14 




Albumen 
Extractive 


. 62.10 
. 4.25 








Difference 


89.67 
. .76 
norganic salts in 




Soluble salts . 


. 11.40 


The total amount of i 


221.36 


1000 parts of serum was 14.39 




Difference 


. 3.82 






The total amount of inorganic salts in 






1000 


parts of blood was 13.75. In 1000 






parts 


of defibrinated blood were 2.78 






of fat. 





The weight of the body at the close of the twenty-four hours 
was 226.41 pounds; a loss of .09 pound, or 630 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.012 inches, and of the 
thermometer 45°. 

The following table exhibits the foregoing results in a collected 
form. 

Table I. 



Egesta. 


1st day. 


2d day. 


3d day. 


4th day. 


5th day. 


Total. 


Mean. 


Kidjieys — 
















Urine .... 


20258.68 


22756.37 


21250.17 


20523.45 


19684.92 


104493.59 


2089&.71 


Water .... 


19185.48 


21485.15 


20224.47 


19388.27 


18698.29 


99005.66 


19801.13 


Solids .... 


1073.20 


1268.22 


1025.17 


1134.18 


986.63 


6487.93 


1097.68 


Urea .... 


' 628.85 


790.11 


620.50 


710.62 


521.75 


3471.83 


694.36 


Uric acid . . 


13.27 


10.55 


11.57 


10.91 


12.02 


58.35 


11.67 


Chlorine . \ 


124.50 


151.28 


142.19 


131.46 


141.26 


690.69 


138 13 


Sulphuric acid 


45.86 


50.72 


35.71 


44.32 


49.30 


225.91 


45.18 


Phosphoric acid 


60.13 


66.13 


47.31 


53.87 


51.84 


229.28 


65.86 


Residue . 


210.59 


199.40 


168.42 


183.00 


210.46 


971.87 


194.37 


Intestines — 
















Feces .... 


2310.47 


2445.69 


2041.76 


2204.11 


2467.58 


11469 61 


2293.92 


Water .... 


1702.37 


1681.68 


1537.63 


1472.89 


1975.41 


8369.98 


1673.99 


Solids .... 


608.10 


764.01 


504.13 


731.22 


492.17 


3099.63 


619.92 


Ether extract . 


75.94 


142.40 


89.14 


60.39 


85.14 


453.01 


90.60 


Alcohol extract 


111 38 


125.18 


95.17 


67.48 


83.60 


482.81 


95.66 


Water extract . 


128.32 


202.41 


112.35 


106.17 


98.52 


647.77 


129.55 


Insoluble residue 


292.36 


294.02 


207.47 


497.18 


224.91 


1575.94 


303.18 


Weight of body . . 


226.45 


226.52 


226.42 


226.50 


226.41 




226.46 


Pulse 


84.33 


85.00 


83.66 


82.83 


85.33 




84.23 


Temperature of body 


97.83" 


98.33" 


98° 


97.50° 


97.60° 




97.83° 


Barometer 
















Thermometer . . 

















19 

I now proceed to consider the main subjects of investigation, 
regretting, however, that they are not treated in a more complete 
manner, but indulging the hope, that the time and labor I have 
bestowed upon them may not prove altogether without profit to 
physiological science, and that others more learned and with 
greater facilities at their command, will labor to dispel the dark- 
ness which yet obscures so many of the vital processes. 



EXPERIMENTAL EESEARCHES. 



ALBUMEN. 



It is an established fact in physiology, that nitrogen is essential 
to the formation of all the organized tissues of the body. The ex- 
periments of Eegnault and Reiset' have definitely determined, what 
had previously been arrived at by Boussingault^ in another way, 
that this substance is not absorbed into the system from the atmo- 
sphere by respiration, but that there is actually, on the contrary, a 
loss of nitrogen to the organism from the lungs. It must, there- 
fore, be entirely derived from the alimentary substances ingested 
into the stomach. 

It results, therefore, that food, to be fully available for the 
requirements of life, must contain nitrogen in its composition, and 
it was, until recently, contended by many physiologists, that the 
nutritive value of aliments was to be directly measured by the 
proportion of this element entering into their constitution. It is 
DOW, however, generally admitted, that in order to conduce to the 
nutrition of the tissues, the nitrogen must be introduced in the 
form of protein. 

The proteinaceous compounds ordinarily met with in the food of 
man, are albumen, fibrin, casein, vitellin, gluten, and legumin. The 
first four of these are found in animal, the latter two in vegetable 
food. Both the organic kingdoms of nature thus unite in provid- 
ing substances containing protein, and, accordingly, whether we 
consider the purely carnivorous or herbivorous animal, we find 

' Researclies cliimiques sur la respiration. Paris, 1849. 

^ Memoires de chimie agricole et de i)hysiologie. Paris, 1854, pp. 1-47. First 
published in Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 



21 

tbat each is furnislied witli aliment containing a sufficiency of 
nitrogen to serve all the purposes of its organism. 

Though the protein aliments are of such great value as organo- 
plastic materials, it would appear, judging from experiments upon 
the inferior animals, that life cannot be sustained for any considerable 
period upon either of them alone. Tiedemann and Gmeliu found it 
impossible to support life in geese which they fed upon pure white 
of egg, and the researches of other physiologists have yielded 
similar results. The main difficulty appears to have been, the ina- 
bility of the digestive organs of the animals submitted to experi- 
ment, to assimilate a sufficient quantity of a protein compoand to 
afford enough carbon to compensate for the loss of this substance 
from the lungs. Thus, Boussingault^ fed ducks exclusively upon 
albumen, casein, and fibrin, and invariably found this to be the 
case. Too much importance, however, should not be attached to 
experiments of this nature. Various temporary causes affecting 
the solubility of the food may have existed, and great care should 
be exercised, before deducing inferences, and applying them to 
man, from investigations instituted on the lower animals. The 
theory (based as it is, solely in experiments upon animals far lower 
in the scale of creation than man), that the digestive fluids can 
only dissolve a limited amount of an albuminate in a given time, 
and that this quantity is insufficient for the demands of the system, 
is far from established, and has been in a great measure disproved 
by the recent observations of Jones.^ 

Though differing in physical characteristics, the proteinaceous 
substances are probably identical in chemical constitution. Albu- 
men, the most important of them, may be regarded as the repre- 
sentative of the class. It is one of the chief organic constituents of 
the chyle and blood, from which all the tissues are elaborated, and 
no doubt exists that, by some means or other, the remaining mem- 
bers of the group, when taken into the stomach, undergo conversion 
into it. I have, therefore, selected it for experiment in preference 
to either of the others. 

The investigations into the value of albumen as an article of 
food, and its effects upon the system, continued ten days. During 
this period, no other solid food was taken into the stomach, and no 
liquid but water. The albumen used was obtained from the serum 

' Op. cit., p. 233, et seq. 

^ Digestion of Albumen and Flesh, &c. — Medical Examiner, 1856, p. 257. 



22 



of bullock's blood, by boiling it, and was consequently ingested in 
the coagulated form. This was the only source at my command 
for obtaining albumen in any quantity. It was well washed, to 
remove, as far as possible, all extraneous matters, and was then 
subjected to a temperature of 220° F., in a chloride of calcium bath, 
to expel all moisture. The water drank was either distilled or 
obtained by melting snow. The water of this region, from the 
springs and streams, contains so large a proportion of salts, that, had 
it been used, it would have interfered materially with the results. 
The distilled water was always well agitated with atmospheric air 
before being drunk. The other conditions under which the inves- 
tigations were conducted, have been fully stated in the Introduc- 
tion, and need not, therefore, be dwelt upon here, I omitted, how- 
ever, to state, that the feces were usually evacuated immediately 
after rising in the morning. All deviations from this rule are spe- 
cially mentioned. 

At the termination of the twenty-four hours, immediately pre- 
ceding the commencement of the experiments, my weight was 
226.51 pounds. 

FIRST DAY. 



Ingesta, 










8 A.M. Albumen . . 


2980 


Water . 


. . 7528 


1 P.M. " . . 


2562 


(( 


. . 6350 


5 " " . . 


3187 


u 


. . 9580 


Total " . . 


8729 


u 


. 23458 


Egesta. 








Kidiieys. 








Whole quantity of urine 16520.36. 




Water 




15363.07 




Solids 






. 1157.29 




Urea . 








812.16 


Uric acid . 








21.39 


Chlorine 








30.54 


Sulphuric acid 








28.65 


Phosphoi'ic acid 








36.17 


Eesidue 








238.38 


Intestines. 








Whole quantity of feces 1 


251.70. 






Water 


, . 


943.41 




Solids 


. 


. 


308.29 





23 

Ether extract .... 26.25 

Alcohol extract . . . 89.7-i 

Water extract .... 125.18 

Insoluble residue . . . 67.23 

SJcin and Lungs. 

Total loss through these channels 15059.14. 

The pulse at 7 A. M. was 82, at 2 P. M. 84, and at 10 P.M. 86.— 
Mean 84. 

The temperature of the body at the corresponding hours was 
respectively 96.5°, 97°, and 98.5°.— Mean 97.33°. 

At 3 P.M. I abstracted 1525.80 grains of blood from the median 
basilic vein, which, upon analysis, was found to possess the follow- 
ing composition : — ■ 



1000 parts of serum — 


1000 parts of blood- 




Water .... 906.28 


Water . 


. 776.45 


Solids .... 93.72 


Solids . 


. 223.55 


Albumen . . . 78.21 


Fibrin . 


. 2.65 


Extractive . . . 6.03 


Blood corpuscles 


142.09 


Soluble salts . . . 8.34 


Albumen 


. 67.00 


92.68 
Difference . . . 1.04 


Extractive 
Insoluble salts 

Difference 


. 5.11 

. 6.37 


The whole quantity of inorganic salts 
in 1000 parts of serum was 10.29. 


223.22 
. .33 




The whole quantity of 


inorganic salts 




in 1000 parts of blood was 


7.93. In 1000 




parts of defibrinated blood were 2.39 of 




fat. 





Tlie weight of the body at the close of the twenty -four hours was 
226.20 pounds; a loss, therefore, of .31 pound, equivalent to 2170 
grains, of which 1525.80 are accounted for by the blood drawn for 
analysis leaving 644.20 grains as the actual loss from the excre- 
tions. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.277 inches, and of the 
thermometer 45° F. 

My appetite on this day was as good as usual. The food was 
sufficient to satisfy it, and was by no means unpleasant to the taste. 
I had no disagreeable symptoms of any kind. Sleep was sound 
and refreshing, and the intellectual faculties clear. 



24 





SECOND DAY. 




IXGESTA. 






8 A.M. 


Albumen . . . 3250 


Water . . . 8050 


1 P. M. 


... 2428 


"... 7525 


5 " 


... 2975 


"... 9200 


Total 


... 8653 


" . . 24775 


Egesta. 






Kidneys. 






Whol 


e quantity of urine 16937. 6i 


) 


Water .... 


15687.44 


Solids .... 


1250.18 




Urea .... 


922.39 




Uric acid . 


22.47 




Chlorine . 


21.54 




Sulphuric acid . 


23.65 




Phosphoric acid 


34.17 




Kesidue 


225.96 


Intestines. 






Whol 


e quantity of feces 1353.69. 




Water .... 


. 1070.94 


Solids .... 


282.75 




Ether extract 


18.20 




Alcohol extract 


75.32 




Water extract . 


124.10 




Insoluble residue 


71.13 



Skin and Lirngs. 

Total loss tlirouGjh these channels 15556.69. 

The pulse at 7 A. M. was 84, at 2 P. M. 87, and at 10 P. M. 88.— 
Mean 86.33. 

The temperature of the body at the same liours was respectively 
98°, 98.5°, and 97.5°.— Mean 98°. 

My weight at the end of the twenty-four hours was 226.14 
pounds; being a loss from the previous day of .06 pound, or 420 
grains. 

The mean heights of the barometer and thermometer were re- 
spectively 29.098 inches, and 42.50°. 

I had no unusual feelings of any kind on this day; slept well. 

The feces were of a very dark brown color, and of neutral reac- 



25 



tion. Crystals of aramonio-magnesian phosphate, epithelial cells, 
and oil and mucus globules, visible with the microscope. 



THIRD DAY. 




Ingesta. 




8 A.M. Albumen. . .3760 Water. . 


. 8325 


1 P.M. " ... 3000 " . . 


. 8490 


5 " "... 4525 " . . 


. 8420 


Total " . . 11285 " . . 


25235 


Egesta. 




Kidneys. 




Whole quantity of urine 18128.60. 




Water 17039.02 




Solids 1389.58 




Urea 1162.39 


Uric acid 


28.92 


Chlorine ..... 


10.45 


Sulphuric acid .... 


29.18 


Phosphoric acid 


48.21 


Eesidue ..... 


110.42 


Intestines. 




Whole quantity of feces 1628.17. 




Water 1273.91 




Solids 351.26 




Ether extract .... 


12.40 


Alcohol extract 


69.27 


Water extract .... 


99.68 


Insoluble residue 


172.91 


Skin and Lungs. 




Total loss from these channels 15903,23. 





My pulse was at 7 A. M. 86, at 2 P. M. 88, and at 10 P. M. 89.— 
Mean 87.66. 

The temperature of the body at the same periods was respectively 
98°, 97.5°, and 98.5°.— Mean 98°. 

At the termination of the twenty-four hours my weight was 
226.22 pounds; a gain over the previous day of .08 pound, or 560 
grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.245 inches, and of the 
thermometer 44°. 

Two evacuations of the intestinal canal occurred on this day; 



26 

one at 9 P. M., the other at the regular hour. Both were in ap- 
pearance, reaction, &c., similar to the discharge of the preceding 
day. In the evening I had slight pains in the lower part of the 
abdomen, and quite severe headache. Both disappeared after the 
first passage from the bowels. My sleep was unquiet in the early 
part of the night, and I awoke in the morning with headache. 

In increasing so materially the quantity of albumen ingested on 
this day, my main object was to test more completely the power of 
the digestive organs. It is seen that they were fully capable of 
dissolving it, and that through its assimilation, enough carbon was 
absorbed to supply the wants of the system. This is evidenced by 
the increase in the weight of the bod}^ and the augmentation in the 
quantity of matter eliminated through the skin and lungs. 



FOURTH DAY. 






Ingesta. 








8 A.M. Albumen . . . 


4200 


Water . . 


. 8560 


1 P. M. " . . 


4650 


u 


. 9255 


o ... 


8875 


u 


. 6350 


Total " . . 


12725 


(( 


24165 


Egesta. 








Kidnej/s. 








Whole quantity of urine 17-183.75. 




Water 




. 15954.25 




Solids 




. 1429.50 




Urea . 




1 


251.32 


Uric acid . 






27.40 


Chlorine . 






5.37 


Sulphuric acid , 






21.18 


Phosphoric acid 






22.29 


Residue 






101.94 


Intestines. 








Whole quantity of feces ^ 


.827.16. 






AVater 




1389.73 




Solids 




437.43 




Ether extract 




, , 


10.36 


Alcohol extract 




, , 


80.29 


Water extract 




. 


151.47 


Insoluble residu 


^ 


. 


195.31 


Skirl and Lungs. 








-Total loss through these cha 


nnels 1635 


.9.09. 





27 

At 7 A.M. my pulse was 86, at 2 P.M. 90, and at 10 P.M. 98.— 
Mean 91.83. 

At the same hours the temperature of the body was respectively 
98°, 99°, and 99.5°.— Mean 98.88. 

At the end of the twenty-four hours my weight was 226.32 
pounds; an increase of 0.10 pound, or 700 grains. 

The mean heights of the barometer and thermometer were re- 
spectively 29.230 inches, and 47.66°. 

I had severe headache the whole of this day, attended with some 
fever. The skin was hot and dry. My appetite was not good. 
After each time of ingesting the albumen there was a feeling of 
debility in the system, accompanied with a singular sinking sensa- 
tion at the epigastrium. There was also nausea at several periods 
of the day. The pains in the lower part of the abdomen were very 
severe, especially about two hours after each meal. 

The feces were similar in appearance to those of the previous 
day; the reaction was alkaline. Crystals of ammonio-magnesian 
phosphate in small quantity visible with the microscope. 

The urine was of high color, and of strong acid reaction — a 
drop evaporated to dryness on a slip of glass and placed upon the 
stage of the microscope, exhibited numerous needle-shaped crystals 
of urea. 

It is perceived from the record of these experiments, that the 
digestive organs were capable of dissolving the large amount of 
albumen ingested, and that it was fully sufficient for the support of 
the respiratory process, and to maintain the weight of the body. 
The constitutional disturbance induced, warned ■ me, however, 
against a repetition of so large a quantity. 







FIFTH DAY. 


Ingesta. 
8 A.M. 


Albumen . 


. . 1850 


1 P. M. 


(( 


. . 2330 


5 " 


(( 


. . 2500 


Total 


u 


. . 6680 


Egesta. 






Kidneys. 







Whole quantity of urine 18738.50. 

Water .... 

Solids .... 



Water 



. 8250 
. 7380 
. 8650 

24550 



17699.08 
1039.42 



28 



Urea 


721.26 


Uric acid . 


18.40 


Chlorine . 


6.01 


Sulphuric acid . 


15.12 


Phosphoric acid 


17.25 


Eesidue 


262.38 


Intestines. 




Whole quantity of feces 1726.5 i. 




Water .... 


1379.80 


Solids .... 


347.24 


Ether extract 


17.29 


Alcohol extract 


167.52 


Water extract . 


85.68 


Insoluble residue 


76.75 



IShin and Lungs. 

Total loss from these channels 13394.96. 

At 7 A.M. my pulse was 90, at 2 P.M. 93, at 10 P.M. 104.— 
Mean 95.66. 

At the same periods the temperature of the body was respect- 
ively 97°, 97°, and 97.5°.— Mean 97.16°. 

At the end of the twenty-four hours my weight was 225.93 
pounds; being a loss from the preceding day of .39 pound, equiva- 
lent to 2730 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.207 inches, and of the 
thermometer 42.33°. 

On this day I felt far from well. I had headache, and pains in 
the abdomen. The sinking sensation at the epigastrium was not 
so great as on the previous day. 

Three evacuations of the bowels occurred; one at 10 A.M., one 
at 4 P. M., and one at 11 P. Isl. They were thinner, and of a darker 
color than previously. My physical strength was much less than 
usual. Appetite was not good. The sight of the albumen created 
disgust and nausea. Was quite restless in the night, and felt chilly 
towards morning. The mental faculties were not sensibly affected. 







SIXTH DAY 


I]S"GESTA. 






8 A.M. 


Albumen . 


. . 2500 


1 P. M. 


(( 


. . 1520 


5 » 


(( 


. . 2000 



Total 



" ... 6020 



Water 



. 7530 
. 8200 
. 7550 

23280 



29 

Egesta. 
Kidneys. 

Whole quantity of urine 17530.24. 

Water 16551.SS 

Solids 978.36 

Urea 728.54: 

Uric acid 29.17 

Chlorine •4.22 

Sulphuric acid .... 12.18 

Phosphoric acid . . . 18.45 

Eesidue 175.80 

Iniestines. 

Whole quantity of feces 1852.15. 

Water 1331.34 

Solids 520,31 

Ether extract .... 10.42 

Alcohol extract . . . 112.16 

Water extract .... 136.58 

Insoluble residue . . . 261.15 

Skin and Lungs. 

Total loss throuo-h these channels 12927.61. 



At 7 A.M. my pulse was 92, at 2 P. M. 93, and at 10 P.M. 93.— 
Mean 92.66. 

At the same hours, the temperature of the body was respectively 
98.5°, 97°, and 97.5°.— Mean 97°. 

At the end of the twenty-four hours my weight was 225.50 
pounds; being a loss of .43 pound, or 3010 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.110 inches, and of the 
thermometer 42°. 

I experienced on this day an increase of debility. The headache 
and pain in the abdomen of the preceding days were not present 
on this. I had very great desire for other food. The albumen v/as 
not at all relished, and it was with great effort I could bring myself 
to eat it. At night I slept quite well. 



30 





SEVENTH DAY. 




Ingesta. 






8 A.M. 


Albumen . . . 3250 


Water . . . 8000 


1 P.M. 


... iOOO 


"... 8500 


5 " 


" ... 3550 


"... 7285 


Total 


. . 10800 


" . . 23785 


Egesta. 






Kidneys. 






AVhole quantity of uriue 16592.83 


. 


Water . . . . . 


15911.08 


Solids .... 




581.75 




Urea . . . . 




390.60 




Uric acid . 




11.28 




Chlorine 




3.61 




Sulphuric acid . 




10.73 




Phosphoric acid 




13.17 




Eesidue 




152.36 


Intestines. 








Whole quantity of feces 32 7( 


).40. 




AVater 




2122.60 


Solids 




. 1153.80 




Ether extract 




11.92 




Alcohol extract 




100.65 




Water extract . 




75.10 




Insoluble residue 




955.13 



Skin and Lungs. 

Total loss from these channels 17476.77. 

My pulse was at 7 A. M. 93, at 2 P. M. 91, and at 10 P. M. 95.— 
Mean 94. 

At the same hours the temperature of the body was respectively 
97.5°, 97.5°, and 97°.— Mean 97.33°. 

At the termination of the twenty-four hours my weight was 
225.10 pounds; a loss, therefore, of .40 pound, equivalent to 2800 
grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.106 inches, and of the 
thermometer 35.33°. 

I felt weaker on this day than on any previous one of the inves- 
tigations. Otherwise, I experienced no very disagreeable sensa- 



31 

tions. My skin was moist and cool during the whole day. Mental 
faculties active and clear. 

There were two evacuations from the bowels, one at 7 P. M., the 
other at the usual hour. Both were of firm consistence, of the 
same dark-brown color, and free from strong odor. On heating a 
small quantity of the urine in a test tube (as had been done each 
day of the investigations), a precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, 
ensued. This was therefore albumen. 



Ingesta. 
8 A.M. 
1P.M. 

5 " 

Total 



Albumen 



EIGHTH DAY. 

. . 2980 
. . 1855 
. . 3740 



Water 



"575 



. 7900 

. 8280 
. 9525 

25705 



492.20 

18.49 

3.35 

11.24 

11.08 

290.86 



Egesta. 
Kidneys. 

Whole quantity of urine 21235.18. 

Water 20407.96 

Solids 827.22 

Urea . 
Uric acid 
Chlorine 
Sulphuric acid 
Phosphoric acid 
Eesidue 
Intestines. 

Whole quantity of feces 3684.02. 
Water 
Solids 

Ether extract 
Alcohol extract 
Water extract . 
Insoluble residue 

Skin and Lungs. 

Total loss from these channels 12770.80. 



At 7 A.M. my pulse was 92, at 2 P.M. 91, and at 10 P.M. 
Mean 90.66. 



2373.10 
1310.92 



8.01 

105.27 

122.53 

1075.11 



82 

The temperature of the body at the same hours was respectively 
97", 96.5°, and 96°.— Mean 96.50°. 

My weight at the end of the twenty-four hours was 224.47 
pounds; being a decrease of .63 pound, equivalent to 4410 grains. 

The mean heights of the barometer and thermometer were re- 
spectively 29.289 inches, and 35.33°. 

With the exception of the debility, I felt tolerably well on this 
day. I did not, however, read or study any, and took no physical 
exercise beyond walking a few steps. 

Two operations of the bowels occurred, one at 6 P. M., and the 
other at the usual hour. The feces were quite hard and similar in 
color and odor to those of the preceding days. 

Albumen was precipitated from the urine by heat. The quantity 
was considerable. 



Ingesta. 


NINTH DAY. 




8 A.M. 


Albumen . . . 2150 


W^ater . . . 5250 


1 P.M. 


... 2200 


"... 5690 


5 " 


... 1800 
... 6150 


"... 6000 


Total 


" . . 16940 


Egesta. 






Kidneys. 

Whole quantity of urine 12325.10. 
Water . . 


. 11674.86 . 


Solids .... 


650.24 




Urea 


829.75 




Uric acid . 


14.81 




Chlorine . 


2.39 




Sulphuric acid . 
Phosphoric acid 
Eesidue 


8.96 
10.53 

283.80 


Intesiines. 






W^hole quantity of feces 8726.50. 
Water .... 


. 8106.35 


Solids .... 


620.15 




Ether extract 


11.24 




Alcohol extract 


162.95 




.Water extract . 


50.17 




Insoluble residue 


395.79 



33 

SJcin and Lungs. 

Total loss from these sources 10018.40. 

My pulse at 7 A. M. was 96, at 2 P. M. 98, and at 10 P. M. 101.— 
Mean 99.83. 

At the same hours, the temperature of the body was respectively 
96°, 96.5°, and 97°.— Mean 96.50°. 

The weight of the body at the close of the twenty -four hours 
was 223.33 pounds; a loss of 1.14 pound, or 7980 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer for the day was 29.235 inches, 
and of the thermometer 24.33°. 

A serious diarrhoea of considerable violence commenced on this 
day. I had six evacuations of the intestines. The discharges 
were very thin, of a dark-brown color, and faint odor. The de- 
bility was much increased. There was dryness of the skin, and 
the urine was of high color. An increased amount of albumen 
was present in this latter excretion. My appetite was not good, 
neither was there much thirst. Mind clear, sleep very unquiet., 







TENTH DAY. 






Ingesta. 










8 A.M. 


Albumen . 


. . 1785 


Water . 


. . 9620 


1P.M. 


u 


. . 1530 


a 


. . 8900 


5 " 


(1 


. . 1500 


u 


. . 9050 


, 10 " 


(( 


• • 


u 


. . 6525 


Total 


(( 


. . 4815 


u 


. 34095 



Egesta. 
Kidneys. 

Whole quantity of urine 21592.87. 

Water 20907.63 

Solids 685.24 

Urea . 
Uric acid 
Chlorine 
Sulphuric acid 
Phosphoric acid 
Residue 
Intestines. 

Whole quantity of feces 10257.30. 

Water 9692.90 

Solids 565.10 



340.29 

15.31 

2.12 

8.36 

9.15 

810.01 



34 



Ether extract 
Alcohol extract 
Water extract . 
Insoluble residue 

Sldn and Lungs. 

Total loss throufrli these sources 15319. 



10.46 
182.63 
530.5 
318.96 



At 7 A.M. my pulse was 94, at 2 P.M. 98, and at 10 P.M. 98.— 
Mean 96.66. 

The temperature of the body at the same hours was respectively 
96.5°, 97.5°, and 98°.— Mean 97.33°. 

At 3 P. M. I abstracted 1330 grains of blood from the median 
basilic vein. An analysis yielded the following results: — 



1000 parts of serum — 




1000 parts of blood- 




Water . 


. 900.09 


Water . 


773.43 


Solids . 


. 99.91 


Solids . 


22«.55 


Albumen 


. 83.21 


Fibrin . 


. 3.18 


Extractive 


. 12.57 : 


Blood-corpuscles 


137.10 


Soluble salts 


. 3.12 


Albumen 


. 71.50 






Extractive 


. 11.29 


Difference 


98.88 
. 1.03 


Soluble salts . 


. 2.14 



The vrbole quantity of inorganic salts 225.21 

in 1000 parts of serum was 4.38. Difference . . . 1.34 

The whole quantity of inorganic salts 
in 1000 parts of blood was 3.90. 1000 
parts of defibrinated blood contained .74 
of fat. 

My weight at the termination of the twenty-four hours was 
221.96 pounds; being a loss from the preceding day of 1.37 pound, 
or 9590 grains. Of this amount 1330 are accounted for by the 
blood abstracted for analysis, leaving 8260 as the loss by the ex- 
cretions. 

The mean height of the barometer was 28.593 inches, of the 
tliermometer 45.66°. 

The diarrhoea continued on this day with increased violence. I 
had eight evacuations of the same character as on the previous day. 
There was very little mucus contained in them, and no blood. A 
microscopical examination revealed the presence of cylindrical and 
scaly epithelium in considerable quantity. 

The debility on this day was extreme, and I was obliged to lie 
down the greater portion of it. The intellectual faculties were 
somewhat confused. My sleep was restless. 



35 

The urine contained a large amount of albumen. 

The investigations into the value and effects of albumen were 
now concluded. In a few days, under a proper diet, I began to 
recover my usual health. The diarrhoea ceased spontaneously on 
the third day. The albumen disappeared from the urine the second 
day after the termination of the experiments. 

The results of the foregoing researches are contained in the ac- 
companying consolidated table. 



36 






3 


o c o 
CO cri '^i 

c^ CO 


O c-l t^ o: CC CC Cl ■* o 
lO -o CO c 1- c/j cr. c^ .- 
crj ci CO o o 02 CD c4 o 

COrHCCr-IIM rH(NrH 

t^ cr. 03 1- cq 


Cl eg -*• 

CO CO d CO -f ci co' 


1-: 


cq 

CO 


d 
7 


CI cr. 


C-. 

CO rH 

d d 
cq-H 


ill 

ff) CO 


OC1t^C:COCD<M-t^Ci 

(.o ^ CO o r^' CO c; o* '-^ 
CD 0-. c/: lO O CO cc (M o 

COrfOJrHCN rH<Nr-l 

t^ i^ c: t^ (M 


CO CO d CD 4,0 CO ci 

CO CO CO -t- cq CO 

►0 CD CC i-l r- 
000 ^^« 













O 


o n o 

^ £ ;r5 
CO CO 


t-co-"a.-<(MO'Or-' 

COX>MC^COrHCOr-to 

!^i t;:f o o ■?: o) CO ci ci 

Cl CI 


CD CO 'O CD 
CO C5 rH -f -.D C: CT^ 

t~.' cq -i d cq CO CO 

•- C. CO r-l OD -c 

cq CD >o 1-1 CO 


CO 




d 





8 

cq 


'A 
03 03 




O p o 

^ C: O 
CC -^ CO 


oco-Hi^^c:;cD(Mp 


° m 2 ?! S 'r^ ^ 

t^ S; b ^ r-i *"■ CO 

CC 00 











d 

CO 





d 

1 


do 


SIS 

ci cq 


■a 


1-; m o 

t- C CO 

-si 


c5 -^ CO ^ '"' '"''"' ci 


cq cq — 1 r~ 0? i-H 

<0 --> 0: CU; cq 'O —_ 
CO CI nH rl 






d 

CO 


d 

T 


CD 

d CD 


cq CO 


>. 


o n i-s 

O CO CO 

t=; 6i CO 


CO't/^OOcCr-COt^CO 

1'; p-. o CO .-H 


cq ira CO 
CD cq CO r-i d lo' 




8 
•0 

CO 




d 
1 


CO 

Ci c; 


11 
cq CO 


>. 

d 

t; 

S 


SS8 




■0 -H rH cq CD 00 10 

cq ^ 9 d cq CD .-; 
CC CO « ""■ 1^ rt cq 






d 

CO 
CO 



d 


CD 




dSq 
cq f 




<:0 -* nH 

C^ CO 


•o o -i< cq -c c ^ c5 CO 
cc oj c; -■■ 00 ic "O 1^ ci 
I-: -.5 o t^ '"' '"' CI 

OC t^ ri 


-*i -t< c:; cq CO i-j 
>o CO cq cq CD t^ 
cd' c:i t.^ t--^ t^ -c CD 

r-.. CO CO r—t 


CO 





i 






7 




CD CD 

C-. 


CO 

cq CO 




r- r-H GO 

-M -H CO 
rH Cq CO 


>o »o o CI c:^ r^ CO o: -t* 

t-C1>CCO-f50.-<ClCi 


CD CO CO CD c; t^ f-i 
r-c t~ Tf CO cq -)< CO 

i-.^ d t^ d d r-' to 
cq t» CO r-i CO en 

CO CO ■:)< rH rH 


g 
CD 





CO 




c:> 

d 


+ 


00 00 

03 crj 


00 

d t-^ 

cq rt< 


COt^fXr-^t^Or^Clr^ 

c» .n CI ••> CI « cq o 

-*■ Ol -^ O r-< 
t^ 'rt i-t rH 


-3 


C-l CN O 

^ eq CO 


o CI CO a: cq o CO r- CI 

CD O LO CO o: -i; r- Cl -f 

CO c» o> ci 00 d c::' CO o 
cqcocococjrtcqi'r-' 

-)' O CO i-H ■-( 


I^ ,-H CD t- CO r- 

T-t cx cq -f cq CD oc 
co' CO -*■ cq d d cq 
CD cq co'"' "^ S 


cq 

s 







«o 

CO 




+ 


CDq 

r^oo 


12 


i 

1 "^ 
1 S 


CO »0 CO 

iot^2j 

"^ff^ CO 


cq -H CO C; t^ -^ '0 t^ CD 

CD -*- w CO -t* 'Cr CD .-H c; 

f^ r>.' d ci cq ^ CO -^ 'O 
cowocidcqcqc^ci 

e eg cq c» ci 


crc -f '0 r-i CO 

S S '^ '" 2 '" 


Ci 





CO 





d 

1 


CO 

ll 


§8 

dcq 
cq «^ 

1 


frico 


CDt.^C7JCDCl-HiOt^cO 

eoocir-ico>c:cDn.<ro 
dcot^cir-^dcocDco 
cicDiSr-cqcocicoco 
•f^ CO r-i CO cq 


^ CT> « -r te CO 
t- -f cq ci f- f-_ ci 

? ^ CO cq CD 
cqo: CO r-( 

rH 





cq 

CO 


CD 
1 




CO a 


cq5 




•i 

t" . . . 

i 3 

-. . . 5 

d 




^ 

.n S i; =« 0) 

2 -S a> K 


ll 

;^ D 


d 

^ 




[5) 

& 
a 
c 
.2 
S 
3 


•.a 


"c 
S § 


' 


o 



i 1 ii. 

i .2 '^ tc ^ u = c. " -7 
Sio 2 .? £ -C S •= i: 



Upon a consideration of the results of .the foregoing investiga- 
tions, and comparing them as far as possible with those obtained 
whilst I was living on a normal and ordinary diet, it is seen that 
the following effects in the mean ensued : — • 

Kidneys. — The ivhole quantity of ttrine was lessened, as were also 
the absolute amounts of ivater and solids. Relatively, the solids 
were increased in quantity. The urine was, therefore, more con- 
centrated. 

The quantity of urea was increased, though not so much so in 
the mean as was to have been anticipated. 

The amount of uric acid eliminated was very much increased. 

The proportion of chlorine was greatly reduced. 

The sulphuric and phosphoric acids were lessened in quantity. 

The residue was increased in amount. 

Intestines. — The whole quantity of feces w^as augmented. This 
result was entirely due to the diarrhoea of the 9th and 10th days. 
More than half of the whole amount of feces was passed on these 
days. Throwing them out of the calculation, and it is seen that 
the mean quantity of feces for the remaining eight days was less 
than the mean of the five days of the standard series. 

The water of the feces was greatly increased. This was owing 
to the same cause as the augmentation of the whole quantity of 
feces. 

The solids were reduced in amount. 

The ether extract was much lessened. It is seen, however, that 
there was a considerable quantity, notwithstanding no fat was 
ingested. 

The alcohol extract was rendered greater in amount. 

The ivater extract was diminished in quantity. 

The insoluble residue was increased. 

Skin and Lunjs. — No comparison of the losses from these chan- 
nels during the two series of investigations can be made ; as, in 
the first series, they were not determined. It is perceived, how- 
ever, that the general effect of increasing the amount of albumen 
ingested, was to augment the proportion of loss from these sources. 

The weight of the body is seen in the mean to have materially 
declined. 

The pulse was increased in frequency. 

The temperature of the body was slightly reduced. 

The effects of an exclusively albuminous diet upon the cousti- 



88 



tution of the hlood, will be more clearly perceived from tlie follow- 
ing table of the first and tenth days' analysis : — 

Table III. 



1000 parts of serum — 


1st 
day. 


loth 
day. 


1000 parts of blood- 


1st 
day. 


lOth 
day. 


Water 

Solids 


906.28 900.09 
93.72 99.91 


Water 

Solids 


776.45 
223.55 


773.43 
226.55 


Albumen .... 
Extractive . . 

Soluble salts . . 


78.28 83.21 
6.03 12.571 
8.34 3.12 


Fibrin 

Blood-corpuscles 
Albumen .... 

Extractive . . . 
Soluble salts . . . 


2.65 

142.09 

67.00 

5.11 

6.37 


3.18 

137.10 

71.50 

11.29 

2.14 


Whole quant, inorg. salts 


10.29 


4.38 


Whole quant, inorg. salts 

Fat in 1000 parts defi- \ 

brinated blood j 


7.93 
2.39 


3.90 
.74 



From this table it is perceived, that under the diet of albumen, 
the luater, soluble and iuJioIe quantity of inorganic salts of the serum 
were diminished, and the solicls, albumen^ and extractive increased 
in quantity. In the ichole Hood there was a diminution of the u-ater, 
hhod-corpuscles, soluble and total amount of inorganic salts, and fat, 
whilst there was an augmentation of the solids, fibrin, albumen, and 
extractive. 

The main results of the foregoing investigations I propose to 
consider more at length under the following heads : — 

1. The capability of the digestive organs to dissolve and the 
absorbents to assimilate, a sufficient quantity of albumen to support 
the calorifacient process. 

2. The relation which the nitrogen of the urea and uric acid 
excreted, bears to the amount absorbed with the albumen. 

In relation to the first head, physiologists are not disposed to 
accord a high value to albumen as an article of respiratory food. 
The elementary analysis of albumen shows that it does not con- 
tain all those substa,nces which enter into the composition of the 
tissues of the body. It cannot, therefore, of itself, support life or 
health, and the functional derangements which attended its use 
during the foregoing investigations, abundantly establish this fact. 
I am very far, therefore, from claiming for it any such power. 
Nevertheless, I think it is fully proven, that before the general 
health becomes injured by a too long exclusive use of albumen, 
enough of this substance can be assimilated to repair the waste of 
the tissues, and support the respiratory function. 



39 

According to Liebig,' an adult man daily consumes 13y^^ ounces 
(a little over 6000 grains) of carbon, which passes from the system 
by the lungs and skin as carbonic acid gas. Scharling'^ states, as 
the result of Jais researches, that a powerful adult man exhales from 
the lungs 867 grammes (about 13,438 grains) of carbonic acid daily. 
This quantity of carbonic acid is equivalent to 3664.90 grains of 
carbon. According to Andral and Gavarret,^ a man twenty-six 
years of age exhales daily 4065 grains of carbon. Carpenter'* is of 
the opinion that 3840 grains is the average daily amount of carbon 
given off through the lungs of a well-grown adult man. 

From a series of researches instituted upon myself, with the 
object of ascertaining the effects of alcohol and tobacco upon the 
human system, I found that an average of 11674.98 grains of car- 
bonic acid (equivalent to 8185.44 grains of carbon) were daily 
exhaled from the lungs. The method of determination was, how- 
ever, imperfect, and the absolute amount was doubtless greater 
than is stated. 

The preceding experiments with albumen show, that on the first 
and second days of the series, the body slightly decreased in weight, 
and that on the third and fourth days a small increase ensued. On 
these days, the quantity of albumen ingested was greater than on 
the first two days; and, that an increased amount was assimilated 
is evident from the comparatively small quantities of water extract 
and insoluble residue obtained from the feces. The fact that the 
bowels were regularly evacuated, shows that the increase of weight 
observed was not due to any obstruction of the intestinal canal, 
and consequent accumulation of matter in that channel. Besides 
the above facts, the great increase in the amount of urea eliminated 
by the kidneys on the days referred to, is also indicative of an 
augmented assimilation of albumen. 

On the fifth day, the body commenced rapidly to lose weight. 
The effects of so exclusive a regimen began to act injuriously upon 
the system, while febrile excitement, and other symptoms indi- 
cative of derangement of the health, were present; and on the 
seventh day, notwithstanding a great increase in the quantity of 
albumen ingested, a loss of weight to the extent of 2800 grains 
occurred. Albumen appeared in the urine on this day, and of the 

' Letters on Chemistry, p. 315, Lond. ed. 

* Lehmann's Physiological Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 435, Amer. ed. 

' Quoted in Carpenter's Physiology, p. 526. 

■• Physiology, p. 526. 



40 

amount taken into the stomacb, over 1000 grains were recovered 
from the excrement. The loss from the skin and lungs was unu- 
sually great. 

The following table, showing the amount of albumen daily ab- 
sorbed into the system from the intestinal canal, and the quantity 
of carbon entering into its composition, will serve to place the sub- 
ject in a more evident light. The proportion of assimilated albu- 
men is found by deducting the collective amount of water extract 
and insoluble residue of the feces, from the total quantity of albu- 
men ingested. In the estimation of the carbon contained therein, 
I have adopted the analysis of Dumas and Cahours,' of the albumen 
derived from the serum of beef's_^blood. 

Table IV. 



AbsDi-bed } 
albumou I 

Absorbed ) 
carboa ( 



1st 
day. 



2d 
day. 



S536..59 S155.77 
4559.53 4515.37 



3d 
day. 



11012.41 
58G0.62 



4th 
day. 



1231S.22 
6577.92 



5th 
day. 



6517.57 
34S0.3S 



6th 
day. 



5622.27 
3002.29 



7th I Sth 9th 
day. day. day. 



9769.76 
5118.05 



day. 



6377.36 3704.04 4442.99 7S95.69 
3406.51 3045.95 2372.53 4216.30 



According to the above table, on only one day (the 4th), did the 
amount of absorbed carbon equal the wants of the system, if we 
accept Liebig's estimate of the quantity ordinarily given off by the 
skin and lungs. On the 3d day, the proportion of carbon entering 
the s^^stem did not fall much below Liebig's standard. On these 
two days only (as we have seen) did the bod}'' gain weight. On all 
the remaining days, except the 7th (and on this day it was nearly 
900 grains less than Liebig's estimate calls for), the quantity of the 
absorbed carbon was much below the requirements of the organism, 
and in the mean, was 1800 grains less than the average amount 
excreted through the skin and lungs, as stated by Liebig. 

Leaving, however, all deductions based upon the estimates of 
others, the broad fact appears, that on the 3d and 4th days of the 
foregoing researches, not only was enough albumen assimilated to 
compensate for the total loss from the excretions, but new matter 
was deposited in quite an appreciable amount. On the 3d day, too, 
the temperature of the body was fully up to the natural standard, 
and on the 4th, very materially exceeded it. Without entering 
further into the details of this point, I think the conclusion is fully 
supported, that the digestive organs can dissolve enough albumen 



Violette et Arcliambault, Dictionnaire des Analyses Chimiques, p. 62. 



41 

to supply the system with the necessary amount' of carbon. If the 
albumen ingested during these experiments had been conjoined 
with such mineral substances, in such quantities as the blood and 
tissues require, in order that nutrition may be perfect, it would 
doubtless have been better borne by the system, and could have 
been taken in much larger quantities. Under such circumstances, 
no good reason can be given, why albumen should not have 
answered all the purposes of plastic formations, and at the same 
time, have sustained the heat producing function at the proper 
degree of action. 

Whether the opinion of Bidder and Schmidt,^ that the gastric 
juice is not secreted in sufficient quantity to dissolve and metamor- 
phose the necessary amount of albumen for the above purposes, 
and that the intestinal juice^ is equally as important an agent in 
effecting these changes, or whether the view of Frerichs and 
Lehmann,^ who could discover no such power in the latter fluid, 
be correct, did not come within the range of these investigations 
to determine. Contrary, however, to Boussingault's'* conclusions, 
based upon his experiments on ducks, and to the indorsement of 
his view by Lehmann,^ I think the deduction drawn from the pre- 
sent researches is fully supported by the direct results obtained — 
at least, so far as regards man, whose physiology it is of the greatest 
importance thoroughly to understand. 

2d. The relation which the nitrogen of the urea and uric acid 
excreted, bears to the amount absorbed with the albumen. 

The relation which the nitrogen excreted by the kidneys has to 
that taken into the system with the food, is far from being definitely 
determined, notwithstanding the numerous experiments made with 
the object of settling the point. 

Two views in regard to the origin of urea are held by those who 
have investigated the subject ; one party, of which Lehmann, Fre- 
richs, and Bidder and Schmidt, are specially to be mentioned, 
maintaining that it is derived both from the decomposition of the 
tissues of the body and from the oxidation of the albuminates 
taken as food, whilst the other, of which Liebig and Bischof are 
the heads, claiming that it is solely derived from the former source. 

' Die Verdaunngssaefte und der Stoffwechsel. — Vom Magensafte, p. 29. 

^ Op. cit. — Vom Darmsafte, p. 260. 

^ Physiological Chemistry, toI. i. p. 510. 

* Memoires de Chimie Agricole et de Physiologie, pp. 235, 236. 

° Physiological Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 495 (Am. od.). 



42 

Whether nitrogenous food is first converted into tissue before 
its elimination as urea, or whether it undergoes oxidation into this 
substance whilst still in the blood, it would seem impossible in the 
present state of our knowledge to decide. The foregoing investi- 
gations, whilst they cannot be considered as determining this point, 
afford some very striking results, and throw some additional light 
upon the subject. 

The following table exhibits for each day of the series, the pro- 
portion of nitrogen in the absorbed albumen, the amount excreted 
with the urea and uric acid, and the ratio which the nitrogen con- 
tained in these substances bore to 100 parts of the quantity which 
was taken into the ors-anism. 



Table V. 





1st 
day. 


2d 
day. 


3d 4th 
day. day. 


5 th 
day. 


6th 
day. 


7th 
day. 


Sth 
day. 


9tb 10th i ,, „ 
day. day. i *^^'''^- 


Absorbed nitrogen 


1340.24 11311. 55 


1728.941933.86 

i 


1023.25 


882.69 1.533.85 


1001.24 905.53 697.54 1235.S7J 


Excreted with ) 
urea I 

Excreted with ) 
uric acid ^ 


378.95 1 430.38 
7.13 7.49 


542.37 
9.64 


583.86 
9.13 


336.53 
6.13 


340.67 182.24 
9.72 3.76 


385.98 
6.16 


153.87 314.58 
4.93 5.10 


364.94 
6.91 


Total 


3S6.0S 437.87 


552.01 


592.99 


342.66 


350.39 


186.00 


392.14 168.SO'319.6SI 371.85 


Excreted fur each i 
100 parts ab- > 
sorbod. ; 


29.55 33.38 


32.50 


30.66 


33.48 


39.69 


12.12 


39.16 


17.53 45.81 


30.08 



From the above table it is seen that the greatest proportional 
elimination of nitrogen, in the form of urea and uric acid, occurred 
on the 6th, Sth, and 10th days, and the smallest on the 7th and 9tli. 
In the mean, 30.08 parts per hundred taken into the system, ap- 
peared again in the urine, as urea and uric acid. 

This result, certainly varies greatly from those obtained by any 
other observer to whose investigations I have had the opportunity 
of referring. The experiments of Kigg* and of Barral,^ gave results 
most nearly in accordance with my own, but there is still a wide 
difference. The former of these physiologists found that for every 
100 parts of absorbed nitrogen, 50.8 were excreted in the urine ; 
the latter, for 100 parts of nitrogen entering the system, found 
42.07 in this excretion. 

Other physiologists have arrived at results yet more at variance 
with mine. Lehraann^ found, that whilst living on a purely animal 

' Lehmann's Physiological Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 497, 498. 
2 Ihid. ^ Ibid. 



43 

diet, five-sixths of the nitrogen taken into the system was given 
off again by the kidneys. Bidder and Schmidt' found, that in a 
cat, which in 24 hours absorbed 8.604 grammes of nitrogen, 7.786 
grammes appeared in the urine. Bischof^ (among other examples) 
found, that of 54.09 grammes of nitrogen entering the system of a 
dog, 29.45 grammes were contained in the excreted urea. It is 
true, Boussingault^ recovered from the urine but 37.8 grammes of 
nitrogen of 139.4 contained in the food of twenty-four hours of a 
horse, but the excess was in this instance, discharged as a consti- 
tuent of the feces. 

In the present experiments, but a small portion of nitrogen could 
have been discharged by the urine, as a constituent of other sub- 
stances than urea or uric acid. The amount of residue, whose 
exact composition was undetermined, was never very large till 
towards the last, and although albumen was discovered in the urine 
after the sixth day, the quantity was not such as to make much 
difference in the proportions given in Table Y. The amount of 
nitrogen eliminated by the feces was of course very small. (It is 
to be recollected in this connection, that in estimating the quantity 
of albumen entering the organism, the "unassimilated residue found 
in the fec'es, is deducted from the gross amount ingested.) 

69.92 grains of nitrogen in every 100 entering the circulation 
were excreted from the system under some other form than as urea 
or uric acid, or that proportion, formed new combinations, and was 
retained within the organism. It is difficult to perceive how this 
enormous amount could have been given off by the lungs and skin, 
especially as the most exact observations upon animals have deter- 
mined the loss of nitrogen through these channels to be exceedingly 
small. 

Frequently, during each day of the investigations, I held a glass 
rod previously dipped in hydrochloric acid, in the current of the 
expired air, and, though the white fumes of chloride of ammonium 
were sometimes produced, this was very seklom, and never in any 
considerable amount. The skin, during the experiments, had no 
ammoniacal odor, which would have been present if ammonia in 
any quantity had been given off. 

In view of these facts, I cannot think that the excess of nitrogen 
escaped from the system as ammonia. 

' Die Verdaiiungssaefte und der StofFweclisel. Tab. v. 3. 306. 

^ Der Harnstoif als Maas des Stoifweclisels, s. G5. 

^ Muinoires de Chimie Agiicole et de Phvsiologie, p. 15, et seij. 



u 

The only conclusion remaining is, that the greater part of the 
absorbed nitrogen continued in the organism either as albumen or 
under the form of other combinations. The decrease of weight in 
the body, which occurred on every day but the third and fourth, 
was doubtless mainly owing to the oxidation of a portion of the fat, 
and is not incompatible with the formation of new matter of an 
entirely different character. 

On a reference to Table II., it is seen that the nitrogenous 
matters of the blood (fibrin, albumen, and extractive) were very 
materially augmented in quantity, and that the fat was greatly 
diminished. These facts constitute a strong additional argument 
in favor of the supposition advanced above, and tend to support the 
view of Bischof,' that the albuminates of the blood must pass 
through other processes before they can, merely by the action of 
oxygen, undergo metamorphosis into urea. 

In view of these circumstances, I am disposed to conclude : 

1st. That the proportion of nitrogen eliminated by the kidneys 
to that absorbed into the circulation is, in man, much less than is 
generally supposed. 

2d. That even when the body is losing weight from the oxidation 
of its fat, the excess of nitrogen over that escaping by th(? kidneys 
is retained in the system, both in its original form, and under that 
of other combinations. 

One of the most important results of the foregoing experiments 
was the discovery of the presence of albumen in the urine. This 
it is seen was not made until the seventh day, from which time, 
this substance was not absent during the researches ; and subse- 
quent observations showed, that it was a constituent of the excre- 
tions for four days after the conclusion of the series. 

The fact that albumen is found in the urine has been before 
noticed in other connections than as associated with granular de- 
generation of the kidneys. Professor Walshe^ is of opinion, that 
it may occur from other diseases, and from the use of certain arti- 
cles of food. Begbie' states, that it may be present in the urine of 
perfectly healthy persons, in certain conditions of the system (as 
pregnancy) in certain acute and inflammatory diseases, after eating 
particular kinds of food (as pastry) after certain remedies (as juni- 

' Der Harnstoif nls Maass des Stoffwechsels, s. 141. 

2 London Lancet, 1849, p. 416. 

3 Britisli and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review, July, 1S53, p. 46. 



45 

per), and after the application of blisters. Bernard' mentions tbe 
case of a man, who, after eating a large number of raw eggs after 
fasting, had albumen present in his urine. Bernard, however, is 
of opinion, that it is only under such conditions, viz., an emptv 
state of the digestive organs, and the sudden ingestion of a large 
quantity of albuminous food, that such an event can ensue, and 
Rees^ denies entirely, that this substance is ever found in the urine 
as the result of an albuminous diet. 

The present researches show, that albuminuria is produced by 
the continued use of highly albuminous food in large quantities, 
and that it was not (so to speak) until the system was saturated 
with albumen, that it made its appearance in the urine. 

Without stopping to discuss the other points of these experi- 
ments, I proceed to detail the results of the second series, with 
starch. 



II. 
STARCH. 



The amylaceous substances were, until recently, regarded as 
being peculiar to vegetable bodies, and the fact of a being present- 
ing distinct evidences of containing them, was sufficient to deny it 
all claim to an animal existence. This distinctive test, however, 
can no longer be relied upon. C. Schmidt first showed that cellu- 
lose (a substance isomeric with starch) existed as a constituent of 
the mantle of certain of the tunicata. Gottlieb discovered para- 
mylon (also isomeric with starch) in the body of the infusorium (?) 
Euglena viridis, and other observers, among whom Kcilliker, Lcewig, 
Schacht, and Huxley,-'' are to be mentioned, have fully demonstrated 
the truth of Schmidt's discovery. 

Within a short period, Virchow^ has carried the investigation 
still further, and has shown that the corpora amylacea of the human 

' Lecjons de Pliysiologie experimentale. Coiirs de semestre d'hivers, 1854—1855. 
2 Loudon Medical Gazette, vol. xiii. 1851, p. 49. 

* For translations of Scliaclit's and Virchow's papers, and Hnxley's original 
article, see Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, Nos. 1, 2, 6, 12, and 14. 

* Ibid. 

4 



46 

brain are composed of cellulose, and that this substance is also met 
with in other parts of the body as the result of a certain diseased 
condition, which he designates as amyloid degeneration. 

Busk,^ however, who has examined this subject very attentively, 
is of the opinion that the corpuscles in the brain, designated as 
cellulose by Virchow, are, in fact, starch, "possessing all the struc- 
tural, chemical, and optical characters of this substance, as it occurs 
in plants." It may therefore be assumed as a physiological truth, 
that amylaceous substances are not peculiar to vegetables, but are 
also constituents of the bodies of man, and other animals. 

From the fact that starch contains no nitrogen in its composition, 
it cannot contribute to the nutrition of the tissues. Its value, there- 
fore, is generally regarded as resting solely on its heat producing 
power. In this respect, its easy digestibility renders it superior to 
fatty substances, although the latter contain a greater proportion 
of combustible material. Boussingault^ fed a duck exclusively 
upon bacon, and found that enough was not assimilated in a given 
time to repair the loss through the respiratory process. Another 
duck, fed upon starch, absorbed nearly twice as much as was suffi- 
cient to furnish carbon for the wants of the system. 

With regard to the process by which starch is digested, much 
l^ght has been afforded by the labors of recent investigators. 
Leuchs first established the fact that the saliva possesses the pro- 
perty of changing starch into sugar. Bidder and Schmidt^ state, 
as the result of numerous experiments, that when the saliva of 
adult men was mixed with a solution of starch, the conversion into 
sugar began instantaneously. They also show, that other juices, 
and certain tissues of animals, possess the faculty of effecting this 
metamorphosis. 

On the other hand, Bernard," whilst believing that the saliva, 
under favorable circumstances, out of the body, is capable of trans- 
forming starch into sugar, denies it this power within the system, 
by reason of the short time it is in contact with the food in the 
mouth, and the fact that the metamorphosis in the stomach is 
entirely prevented by the gastric juice. He is of opinion that the 

' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, No. vi. p. 115. 

2 Memoires de Chimie agricole et de Physiologie, p. 230. 

3 Die Verdauungssaefte uud der Stoffweclisel. S. 17. 

* Leqons de Physiologic experimentale. Cours de semfstre d'ete. 1855, p. 155 
-et seq. 



47 

change of starch into sugar is ahiiost solely due to the action of 
the pancreatic and intestinal juices. 

Mialhe' combats these views of Bernard, and whilst admittinsf 
that the conversion of starch into glacose, initiated by the saliva, 
may be arrested in the stomach by the acid of the gastric juice, 
contends, that the former fluid exercises a very powerful influence 
in eflecting the transformation. 

Some recent experiments of Professor F. G. Smith,^ of Philadel- 
phia, would seem to determine this point. Prof, S. found in the 
case of Alexis St. Martin (the individual upon whom Dr. Beau- 
mont's experiments were instituted), that after eating farinaceous 
food, sugar was invariably discovered in the contents of the 
stomach, and concludes "that the human gastric juice does not 
prevent the conversion of starch into grape sugar, and that this 
change may take place in the stomach independently of the action 
of the saliva." His investigations appear to have been conducted 
with great care, and I shall therefore adopt his conclusions. 

The change which is commenced by admixture of the amylaceous 
food with the saliva in the mouth, is continued in the stomach, by 
the quantity of this secretion swallowed with the aliment. The 
gastric, pancreatic, and intestinal juices, especially the second 
named, assist in the process, and eventually, through the combined 
influence of these several secretions, the starch is brought into a fit 
form for assimilation. The greater part is absorbed into the circu- 
lation as grape sugar, a portion undergoes continued metamorphosis 
into lactic and butyric acids, and occasionally another part, which 
has escaped alteration, is discharged with the alvine dejections. 

Such is a very condensed outline of some of the principal points 
of interest connected with the substance under consideration. I 
now proceed to state my own investigations. 

The starch used in these experiments was of the form generally 
known as corn-starch, and being manufactured for table use, was 
of a purer quality than the ordinary article. It was always cooked 
before ingestion, but was taken free from any other substance than 
the necessary amount of water. The figures in the following pages 
expressive of the quantity of starch ingested, refer to the dry sub- 
stance before it was cooked ; those relating to the amount of water, 
refer both to that portion of this liquid taken with the starch, and 

' Cliimie appliquee a la Physiologie, etc., p. 38, et seq. 
i Medical Examiner, September, 185G, p. 513, et seq. 



48 

tlic quantity drank. The water used was either distilled, or snow 
or rain water. 

The investigations were performed under the same conditions 
(other than the food) as the former series, and as stated at length 
in the introduction. Such deviations from the standard course as 
were unavoidable, are specially noted. The researches continued 
ten days. 

Thirty days elapsed from the conclusion of the experiments with 
albumen till the commencement of the present series. In that time, 
my health had entirely recovered, and the weight of the body had 
undergone a small, but steady increase. 

At the end of the twenty-four hours immediately preceding the 
commencement of the following researches, my weight was 224.87 
pounds. 



FIRST DAY. 






Ingesta. 






8 A.M. Starch , . . 3000 


Water . . 


. 8550 


1 P. M. " ... 4000 


u 


. 8500 


5 " "... 2500 


(( 


. 7450 


Total " ... 9500 


u 


24500 


Egesta. 






Kidneys. 






Whole quantity of urine 14339.5; 






Water .... 


13588.69 




Solids .... 


750.82 




Urea .... 




421.57 


Uric acid . 




6.34 


Chlorine 




85.26 


Sulphuric acid . 




30.45 


Phosphoric acid 




27.18 


Kesidue 




180.02 


Intestines. 






Whole quantity of feces 1041.86. 






Water .... 


816.96 




Solids . . , . 


224.90 




Ether extract 


. 


49.72 


Alcohol extract 




50.29 


Water extract . 


, 


80.18 


In.soluble residue 




94.71 



49 

Skin mid Lungs. 
Total loss tlirougli these cliannels 19798.34:. 

My pulse at 7 A.M. was 80, at 2 P.M. 82, and at 10 P. M. 84:.— 
Mean 82. 

The temperature of the body at the above hours was respectively 
98°, 97.5°, and 97°.— Mean 97.50°. 

At 3 P.M. I abstracted 1480.29 grains of blood from the median 
basilic vein. The following is the analysis: — 



1000 parts of serum — 


1000 parts of blood- 




Water .... 907.34 


Water . 


779.33 


Solids .... 92.66 


Solids . 


220.77 


Albumen . . .75.02 


Fibrin . 


. 1.99 


Extractive . . . 6.18 


Blood-corpuscles 


141.18 


Soluble salts . . . 10.72 


Albumen 


. 63.66 


91.92 

Difference . . . .74 


Extractive 


. 4.84 


Soluble salts 


. 9.31 


The whole quantity of inorganic salts 


220.98 


in 1000 parts of seruro was 11.98. 


Difference 


.21 




The whole quantity of 


inorganic salts 




in 1000 parts of blood was 10.42. In 




1000 parts of defibrinated blood was 1.83 




of fat. 





The weight of the body at the end of the twenty-four hours was 
221.49 pounds; being a loss of .38 pound, or 2660 grains; of which 
1480.29 are represented by the amount of blood drawn for exami- 
nation, leaving 1179.71 as the excess of loss from the excretions. 

The mean height of the barometer for the twenty-four hours was 
29.276 inches, and of the thermometer 1.66°. 

On this day I had no abnormal symptoms of any kind. My 
appetite was very good, and the starch was relished as a pleasant 
article of food. At night, slept well. I took but very little physi- 
cal exercise on this day, owing to the extreme coldness of the 
weather. 







SECOND DAY. 


IXGESTA. 






8 A.M. 


Starch 


. . . 3000 


1 P. M. 


K 


. . . 3500 


5 " 


U 


. . 4000 



Total 



10500 



Water 



. 6250 
10000 
10000 

26250 



50 



GESTA. 




Kidneys. 




Whole quantify of urine 14970.83. 




Water .... 


1-1327.62 


Solids .... 


613.21 


Urea .... 


369.15 


Uric acid . . . . 


5.42 


Chlorine 


31.04 


Sulphuric acid . 


19.6S 


Phosphoric acid 


25.97 


Eesidue 


183.95 


Intestines. 




Whole quantity of feces 1076.53. 




Water .... 


858.18 


Solids 


218.35 


Ether extract 


51.36 


Alcohol extract 


39.12 


Water extract . 


24.39 


Insoluble residue 


103.48 



Shin and Lungs. 

Total loss through these channels 21122.64. 

My pulse was at 7 A. M. 83, at 2 P. M. 85, and at 10 P. M. 84.— 
Mean 84. 

At the same periods the temperature of the body was respect- 
ively 98°, 98.5°, and 98°.— Mean 98.16°. 

The weight of the body at the end of the twenty-four hours was 
224.43 pounds; a loss of .06 pound, or 420 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.086 inches, and of the 
thermometer 3°. 

No unusual symptoms of any kind occurred. Appetite good, 
sleep sound and refreshing. At about 9 P. ]\r., through inadver- 
tence, I drank two ounces of hot whiskey punch. 



Ingesta. 
8 A.M. 
1 P. M. 
5 " 



Starch 



THIRD DAY. 

. . 3300 
. . 3500 
. . 4500 



Water 



. 8900 
. 9526 
10500 



Total 



11300 



28926 



51 



Egesta. 






Kidneys. 






Whole quantity of urine 19735,24. 






Water .... 


. 19206.09 




Solids .... 


439.15 




Urea .... 




225.06 


Uric acid . 




5.18 


Chlorine 




14.27 


Sulphuric acid . 




12.07 


Phosphoric acid 




26.61 


Residue 




155.96 


Intestines. 






Whole quantity of feces 925.01. 






Water .... 


724.47 




Solids .... 


200.54 




Ether extract 


, 


45.13 


Alcohol extract 


, 


28.74 


Water extract . 


, 


85.41 


Insoluble residue 


. 


91.26 



Skin and Lungs. 

Total loss from these channels 18585.75. 



My pulsG at 7 A. M. on this day was 82 per minute, at 2 P. M. 
84, and at 10 P.M. 85.— Mean 83.66. 

The temperature of the body at the same hours was respectively 
98°, 98°, and 98.5°.— Mean 98.16°. 

My weight at the end of the twenty-four hours was 224.57 ; 
showing an increase over the preceding day of .14 pound, or 980 
grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.218 inches; that of 
the thermometer was 4.66°. 

Notwithstanding the increase of weight, I felt somewhat weak 
on this day. My appetite was excellent, and the starch was still 
relished. The urine was of a somewhat darker color than usual. 
Numerous starch granules were discovered in the feces by the 
microscope. 



52 



IXGESTA. 

8 A. M. 
1 p. M. 



Starch 



FOURTH DAY. 
. . 3000 

. . 3500 
. . 5500 



Water 



. 8500 
. 9500 
11000 



Total '• . . 12000 " . . 29000 

Egesta. 
Kidneys. 

Whole quantity of urine 20215.10. 

AVater 19787.10 

Solids ..... 458 

Urea 201.29 

Uric acid 7.53 

Chlorine 8.41 

Sulphuric acid .... 10.55 

Phosphoric acid . . . 18.29 

Eesidae 216.7-1 

Intes tines. 

Whole quantity of feces 1138.15. 

Water 1013.08 

Solids 425.07 

Ether extract .... 40.26 

Alcohol extract . . . 29.13 

Water extract . . . . 28.64 

Insoluble residue . . . 327.01 

Slin and Lungs. 

Total loss through these channels 18476.25. 

My pulse at 7 A. M. was 82, at 2 P. M. 84, and at 10 P. M. 84.— 
Mean 83.33. 

At the same hours the temperature of the body was respectively 
98.5°, 99°, and 99°.— Mean 98.83°. 

At the termination of the twenty-four hours my weight was 
224.79 pounds ; an increase over the preceding day of .12 pound, 
equivalent to 840 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.366 inches, and of the 
thermometer 0.66°. 

I felt a good deal of debility during this day, my mind was not 
active, and there was great indisposition to physical exertion. The 
appetite was good, but, for the first time, there was some little dis- 



53 

taste for the starch, and a great desire to mix salt with it. I ex- 
perienced at intervals during the day a feeling of oppression about 
the lungs, which was only relieved by a full inspiration ; at night 
had frequent dreams of falling from precipices, and awoke several 
times with a sudden start. I also noticed, that the saliva was un- 
usually thick and ropy. Under the microscope, an extraordinarily 
large number of epithelial cells and mucus globules were dis- 
covered. It was neutral to test paper. 



IXGESTA. 

8 A.M. 
1 P.M. 
5 " 

Total 



Starch 



FIFTH DAY. 

. . 3000 
. . 3800 
. . 4000 



Water 



10800 



. 8000 
. 9000 
10000 

27000 



Egesta. 
Kidneys. 

Whole quantity of urine 18275.82. 

Water 17885.11 

Solids 390.71 

Urea 160.47 

Uric acid ..... 7.2(3 

Chlorine 8 03 

Sulphuric acid .... 6.70 

Phosphoric acid . . . ]0.55 

Eesidue ..... 197.70 

Intestines. 

Whole quantity of feces 1145.90. 

Water 937.68 

Solids 205.22 

Ether extract .... 35.78 

Alcohol extract . . . 30.65 

Water extract .... - 20.50 

Insoluble residue . . . 118.29 

Shin and Lungs. 

Total loss throuo-h these channels 18518.28. 



My pulse at 7 A. M. was 85, at 2 P. M. 87, and at 10 P. M. 87. 
Mean 86.33. 



54 

The temperature of the body at the same hours was respectively 
98.5°, 99°, and 99.5°.— Mean 99°. 

At the end of the twenty-four hours my weight was 224.77 
pounds; showing a loss of .02 pound, or 140 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.510 inches, and of the 
thermometer 1°. 

On this day I felt exceedingly feeble. The mind was dull, and 
it required an effort to fix it upon any subject. Scarcely any phy- 
sical exercise was taken. The feeling of oppression at the chest 
had increased, and there was a good deal of sighing respiration. 
At 12 M., and at 4 P. M., had slight palpitation of the heart. There 
was some pain in the abdomen through the day, and a large quan- 
tity of flatus was discharged with the feces. Slept better than on 
the previous night, but awoke in the morning with a most intense 
pain over the left supraorbital arch. This was so severe that I was 
unable to endure it, and I took forty grains of magnesia with 
almost instantaneous relief; showing that in all probability the 
headache was caused by acidity of the stomach. The saliva was 
of the same character as on the previous day. The microscope still 
showed an unusual amount of epithelial scales and mucus globules. 
Eeaction neutral. 

The urine passed, on rising from bed, was of a darker color than 
at any time previous during this series of experiments. On testing 
it for sugar, by Trommer's method (as had been done every day 
during the investigations), there was a clear and well marked pre- 
cipitate of the suboxide of copper. The fermentation test, and 
examination with the microscope for the torula cerevisice, were both 
subsequently applied with affirmative results. 



T"^0'^-^^^c^T a 




SIXTH DAY. 




8 A.M. St 


arch 


. . . 2500 


Water . 


1 P. M. 


u 


. . . 3500 


u 


5 " 


u 


. . . 4000 


a 


Total 


u 


. . 10000 


u 


Egesta. 








Kidneys. 








Whole quantity of 


urine 15160.06. 




Water 






, 14631.87 


Solids 


. 




528.19 



. 6200 
. 9050 
10000 

25250 



55 





Urea .... 


176.28 




Uric acid . 


8.49 




Chlorine . 


6.22 




Sulphuric aciil . 


4.12 




Phosphoric acid 


5.64 




Eesidue 


347.84 


Intestines. 






Whole 


quantity of feces 1097. 




Water .... 


910.47 


Solids .... 


186.53 




Ether extract 


29.89 




Alcohol extract 


34.75 




Water extract . 


14.65 




Insoluble residue 


107.24 



SMn and Lungs. 

Total loss through these channels 18782.94. 

O 

The pulse at 7 A.M. was 85 per minute, at 2 P.M. 85, and at 10 
P.M. 90.-~Mean 87.66. 

At the same periods the temperature of the body was respect- 
ively 99°, 99°, and 99.5°.— Mean 99.16°. 

At the termination of the twenty-four hours my weight was 
224.81 pounds; an increase of .03 pound, or 210 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.426 inches, and of the 
thermometer 9.33°. 

The debility was still present. Notwithstanding the magnesia 
taken the previous day, there was considerable torpor of the bowels. 
Mental phenomena unchanged. The skin was hot, and there was 
some fever towards night. The oppression at the chest had, in a 
measure, subsided. The palpitation of the heart, however, still 
remained, and was very annoying. I was also troubled a good deal 
with pyrosis. Eested well at niglit. 

All the urine discharged on this day exhibited (with the tests 
previously employed) undoubted evidences of containing sugar. 
The saliva was more natural in its character, though of very feeble 
alkaline reaction. 

My friends noticed, by this time, a change in my personal ap- 
pearance. My countenance was unusually pale, and my lips of a 
slight bluish tinge; showing deficient aeration of the blood, or an 
excessive accumulation of carbonaceous matter in the system. 



56 



SEVENTH DAY. 




IXGESTA. 




8 A.M. Starch . . . 2500 


Water . . . 7000 


1 P.M. " ... 3500 


"... 8000 


5 " "... 3500 


"... 9300 


Total " . . 9500 


" . . 24300 


Egesta. 




Kidneys. 




Whole quantity of urine 15282.25. 


Water .... 


. 14856.45 


Solids .... 


425.80 


Urea .... 


157.05 


Uric acid . 


8.36 


Chlorine 


4.74 


Sulphuric acid . 


3.81 


Phosphoric acid 


5.70 


Residue 


244.14 


Intestines. 




Whole quantity of feces 946.17. 




A\^ater .... 


750.70 


Solids .... 


195.47 


Ether extract 


83.76 


Alcohol extract 


84.29 


Water extract . 


27.42 


Insoluble residue 


100. 



Skin and Lungs. 

Total loss by these channels 17921.58. 

At 7 A.M. the pulse was 87, at 2 P.M. 89, and at 10 P.M. 93.— 
:\[ean 89.66. 

At the above hours, the temperature of the body was respectively 
98°, 98.5°, and 98.5°.— Mean 98.33°. 

At the end of the twenty-four hours the weight of the body was 
224.76 pounds; a decrease of .05 pound, or 350 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.141 inches, that of the 
thermometer 12.33°. 

The palpitation of the heart was very troublesome on this day, 
as was also the pyrosis. Debility excessive, especially in the mus- 
cles of the back. The desire for other food was very great. The 
starch was by this time exceedingly disagreeable. One or two 



57 

slight scratches, which I had received on the hand the day before, 
became painful, and showed a tendency to inflammation and suppu- 
ration. Such a thing had never happened to rae before ; my flesh 
always healing readily after such injuries. I did not sleep well, 
was quite feverish during the night, and awoke in the morning 
with severe headache. 

The urine was still saccharine, of a dark-brown color, and very 
acid reaction. Saliva natural. 

Numerous starch granules were discovered with the microscope 
in the feces. This excretion was also very acid in its reaction, and 
of a dark, almost black color. 



eighth day. 
Ingesta. 






8 A.M. Starch . . . 2225 


Water . . 


. 5700 


1 P. M. " ... 2525 


u 


10000 


5 " "... 3500 


u 


10000 


Total " . . 8250 


u 


25700 


Egesta. 






Kidneys. 

Whole quantity of urine 20130.81 
Water .... 


T 

. 19781.62 




Solids .... 


549.25 




Urea .... 




185.33 


Uric acid . 




7.94 


Chlorine . 




4.30 


Sulphuric acid . 
Phosphoric acid 
Residue 




3.09 

5.86 
842.73 


Intestines. 






Whole quantity of feces 900.61. 
Water .... 


758.88 




Solids .... 


141.73 




Ether extract 


, 


30.13 


Alcohol extract 


^ 


25.37 


Water extract . 


, 


12.60 


Insoluble residue 


. 


73.63 



Slcin and Lungs. 
Total loss from these channels 14018.52. 



58 

At 7 A.M. mj pulse was 92, at 2 P.M. 94, and at 10 P.AI. 91.— 
Mean 93.33. 

The temperature of the body at the above hours was respectively 
98.5'^, 99.5°, and 99°.— Mean 99°. 

My weight at the end of the twenty-four hours was 221.57 
pounds; a loss from the preceding day of .19 pound, or 1330 grains. 

The mean heights of the barometer and thermometer were re- 
spectively 29.105 inches, and 15.33°. 

Violent headache was present during the whole day. The mind 
was somewhat confused; an almost constant twitching of the left 
superior eyelid was experienced, and caused me d great deal of an- 
noyance. The oppression of the chest had returned, and was only 
relieved by frequent, full, and deep inspirations. There were also 
griping pains in the lower part of the abdomen, attended with the 
discharge of much flatus. The pyrosis still continued. Palpitation 
of the heart less violent and frequent. Several boils made their 
appearance on various parts of the body. 

The urine, when tested, as before mentioned, exhibited the same 
characteristic signs of the presence of sugar as previously. Keac- 
tion strongly acid. Starch granules in the feces. 





NINTH DAY. 


Ingesta. 




8 A.M. 


Starch . . . 3500 


1 P. M. 


" ... 3500 


5 " 


... 1500 


Total 


. . 11500 


Egesta. 




Kidneijs. 




AVhole 


quantity of urine 23352.11 


Water .... 


Solids .... 




Urea .... 




Uric acid . 




Chlorine . 




Sulphuric acid . 




Phosphoric acid 




Eesidue 



Water 



. 7600 
. 9500 
10500 



27(350 



22879.95 




472.16 






132.53 




9.47 




3.01 




2.61 




5.50 




318.99 



59 



testines. 






Whole quantltj of feces 1256.45. 






Water .... 


1043.21 




Solids .... 


21:124 




Ether extract 


. 


21.36 


Alcohol extract 


. 


18.51 


Water extract . 


, 


15.74 


Insoluble residue 


. 


157.(j3 



Skin and Lungs. 

Total loss from these channels 13631.44. 

At 7 A. M. on this day my pulse was 90, at 2 P. M. 93, and at 10 
P.M. 95.— Mean 92.66. 

The temperature of the body at these hours was respectively 
99.5°, 99.5°, and 100°.— Mean 99.66°. 

The weight of the body at the end of the twenty-four hours was 
224.70 pounds; an increase of .13 pound, or 910 grains over the 
previous day. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.252 inches, and of the 
thermometer 13°. 

The symptoms observed on this day did not differ materially 
from those of the day before. I was obliged, however, from weak- 
ness and general indisposition, to go to bed at 8 P. M. Did not 
sleep well. 

The. urine was still highly saccharine, and of the same clear 
brown color as before noticed. 







TENTH DAY. 




Ingesta. 








8 A.M. , 


Starch . 


. . 2200 


Water . 


2 P.M. 


(( 


. . 4525 


it 


5 " 


(( 


. . 3500 


i( 


Total 


(( 


. 10225 


u 


Egesta. 








Kidneys. 








Whole quantity of 


urine 22785. 




Water 


, 


. 


. 22272.43 


Solids 


^ ^ 


. . 


512.57 



. 6000 
11500 
. 9000 



26500 



60 





Urea 


121.77 




Uric acid . . . . 


9.36 




Chlorine . . . . 


1.89 




Sulphuric acid . 


2.26 




Phosphoric acid 


5.31 




Residue . . . . 


810.59 


Intestines. 






Whole 


quantity of feces 1250.27. 




W 


ater . . . . . 


945.12 


Solids . . . . . 


201.85 




Ether extract 


25.63 




Alcohol extract 


25.80 




Water extract . 


17.43 




Insoluble residue 


135.4^ 



Skin and Lungs. 

Total loss from these channels 12599.73. 

My pulse at 7 A.M. was 91, at 2 P. M. 90, and at 10 P.M. 93.— 
Mean 91.33. 

The temperature of the body at the same hours, was respectively 
99°, 99.5°, and 99.5°.— Mean 99.33°. 

At 3 P.M. I abstracted 1350 grains of blood from the median 
basilic vein, and, upon analysis, found it to be constituted as fol- 
lows : — 



1000 parts of serum — 




1000 parts of blood- 




Water . 


. 920.81 


Water . 


796.49 


Solids . 


. 79.19 


Solids . 


203.51 


Albumen 


. 63.45 


Fibrin . 


. 3.15 


Extractive 


. 12.35 


Blood-corpuscles 


132.60 


Soluble salts 


. 2.12 


Albumen 


. 55.96 


Difference . 


77.92 
. 1.27 


Extractive 
Soluble salts . 


. 11.25 
. 1.87 


The whole quantity 
in 1000 parts of serum 


of inorganic salts 
was 2.89. 


Difference 


204.83 
. 1.32 






The whole quantity of 


norganic salts 






in 1000 parts of blood was 


2.05. In 1000 






parts of defibrinated bloc 


d were 2.74 of 






fat. 





The weight of the body at the end of the twenty-four hours was 
224.53 pounds; being a loss of .18 pound, or 1260 grains. As, 
however, 1350 grains of blood were taken from the body, there 



61 

was an actual increase of 90 grains, or, more properly, would have 
been, but for the loss of blood. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.155 iiiches, and of the 
thermometer 12.66°. 

The general symptoms observed were of the same character as 
those of the last two days, but more strongly marked. 

The urine was highly saccharine, and of the same brown color ; 
resembling Madeira wine. 

The immediate effect of the slight abstraction of blood was to 
relieve the feeling of oppression at the chest; but in an hour it 
returned with increased violence. The debility was very great. 

The experiments with starch were now at an end. Immediately 
on their termination, I ate a hearty breakfast, but my stomach was 
in so weak and disordered a condition, that the food was almost 
instantly rejected. I found that I was obliged to resume my ordi- 
nary diet with some degree of caution. After a few days, I became 
free from all unpleasant symptoms, and rapidly regained my usual 
good health. Tt is remarkable, however, that for the first few days 
after the conclusion of the experiments, I steadily lost weight, so 
that on the tenth day, I weighed but 223.18 pounds. Sugar was 
detected in the urine till the morning of the sixth day. 

The accompanying table embraces the main results of the fore- 
going investigations: — • 



62 



Eh 





C: z: ^ 


^^^,^„^^^,^ 


O -H O O CO 05 "O 


c:3 


r^ 


«^ 




cor, 


c 




cc CO c: CO O r- t-^ o OD 


CC OJ O CO CO o o 




q 




CI -1 


'.O CO 




I- I-.' >-: 


t- d tc o t-' -^ aic^^i 


t>I CO r-' CD' r-J (Oi O 


CO 




cr 




CI q 








O CC Ol « CO CI CO 






CO 






<i 


c^. o vj 


^ ? 3 55 *"" c-i 


r- CC CI r-. 


CO 




1 


fX 0-, 


Cl 


c -^ ■-:; 










1 








r- ~1 ^-i 


^ rH 




'-' 


=9 




— 










>C '0 C CI >o to -f 


Ir^ 






^^ -n ^ 


i>; d ci:. '-5 CO I-" cc x> CO 


O: rH c: q -JS CI 10 


q 


I^ 


t-- 






cS 




o to cr* CO <ri r-^ t^ o CO 






d 












t- O o iCi t- ^ o: CO G^ 


t^ :o r^ !0 r- 01 o 












o 






O VD 0*1 CO CO CT CO 




o 








E-i 




-*■ a: o G<l N 


^ COC^ rH 


CO 




l" 








^ •' '^ 


-- 


^ 


" 


CO 


1 






^' 




1 


t^ CI >0 CO O CO Cj 


CO 


o 


o 


^. 


.O o 




S ^ o t^ CO 35 o5 S '.-5 


CI -ti CC CO CC -C -" 




o 


o 






'^ 


CI ^ "1 


»C' Tl Oi r-H oi r-i (M U™ O 


(^ ,-: -«: ,f-: .r-" t^ o 


d 




d 


CO CO 


""! ^ 






Ct !■- r- C-5 -♦> 


iO -* O C5 C^ r-t CO 


Ci 










o 


^ f 1 CO 




CI Oi CI rH 


01 


CD 


+ 


en en 


Cl r-( 


'^ 




ii i-i 






CO 








X 


,-iococot-w^oc; 


UO .-H -H :o .-H -f CO 




o 


o 


^ 


Cl 




O C O r- C-. r^ O -f O :0 'O Ci 


-f CI CI CO 'O t^ CO 


-f 


o 






o 


•o 


,^ ■- '^ ci c. oi o"i ci cc oi o f/5 


CO CO CO ;-; CC .o r-: 




d 


d 


cr io 






^ 1 . - ■- 1^ l:~ CO ^ 


»C — r^ CI ,-1 r- O 








ci c; 


d CO 




^ ~1 •=; CO X -t> r-i CO 


CI O N r- 






C". 


C- o 


Cl rl 


c: 


CO Ol 




CO 


-Jj 


+ 






>^ 




f- O. .0 CO - O ^. := CO 


^ X CO CO. r^ = CO 


' Ol 


o 


c 




1^ ^ 


9 5,? 








o 


q 


CO 


d CO 
























o ^ — * 'O t-- *^ CO '* 01 


c x -: o o' oi CO 




p' 








0^ '* f'S 


CO X -* x -:< 








CO 


CO c: 


d 'CJ 




CI H 


.- I- O rl CO 






CI 




c: C5 


d rl 






c cir. 














CTj 








^~' 


CO 


1 






^ 




.- -^ -^ ^ ^ -f 


r- cr t^ -j^ ~ CI o 


CC 


o 


o 




^O 






r- t- -f 1- C) -f = 










-f CO 


'O 


^ 5 ^ 


C-J to O t-^ XI TJ^* CO o -*• 


CO d 'O CO -* 1^ d 


^" 


,— ' 


o 


~' ^ 


". ^ 






CC O -M O -* 


-*• '-. O CO CO CI Ci' 


CI 










^ 




C^ JO -t- r-i CI 




cr. 






'X d 
















1" 






'~ 




r^rH 




*"• 


CO 


1 






W 




CO t^ c; CC c. (M o^ -^ -" 


C t^ CO a: .o JO ;;H 


•f 


c 


^ 


^ 


coo 


coo 


O X rH C-1 -+- (M ^ w X; 




q 




q 


CD CO 


Cl CO 


'^ 


? -1 -r, 


o r-" r/ -.0 cnt6^ ^o i^ 


1^ -■ •^" " -^ t^ 




o 




CO rr_ 


-f CO 




e ■ - - 




cr. ^ .X ci CO r-^ C 








r- c; 


d d 






2 S Sj ^ CO 


C CTj r-. r- 




o 










1 


t- -H 








+ 






'■^ 




r-i r-< 




'^ 


CO 










C-ln-r-lt>tOCOO»'tO 


O CC CI GO lO O CR 


CO 


o 


^ 




o 


f if 


a: ,_ t^ -1- 01 c t^ >c r* 


Ol CO CI 1^ CO o o 

uo t-.' .o — d d CC 


CI 


o 
d 


d 


CO 


1 '~' 




C 1 - 1- 




— CO O CO CO CI n-i 












X 


r=; bi ro 


C-1 X 55 r-l r-H 






cr. 




CC c 


Cl 






x. t- 








1 






'•"• 








" 


CO 


1 






>. 




OOOaito»-<'QC:-H 


■o CO r~ CO CO -" — 


"0 


o 


o 


^ 


coo 




r=; ;:; c ^1 uo -f u-f (>i t- 


r- q c CI ^_ q q 


CI 




o 


CO CO 


CO CO 


^ 


£g g 


1-" t~-" CC -+- 1>^ CC d Vi -d 




CO 


o 


d 


CO X 


CO o 






-»- X '- O rH r- f-' 


CO ^ ci -f ci CI oi 










c: d 






CI r^ -^ c-i ci 


-+ O -t^ CO 






CC 




Cl 


-5 






"" 


s 


^ 


+ 




1 


k. 




-. . -. 


r-. t^ -f ~- -" rH CO 


UO 


o 


^ 


^ 




C' r^ V:' 


ciSSoSSSSoi 


O -t* O r-4 t f CI 


t^ 


q 


o 


CC CO 


^ CD 




S J^' ^1 


t^ d ci «o »d -^ oi '-6 'o 


lo -*■ d lo CO .-> r^ 


lO 




o 




Cl q 




CO Cl r: -M r-( r- C^ 'O 


CI 01 O -J" CI CO CI 




•+ 












t-: CI -f c-1 M 


c-._w c< 




CI 


Cf 


cti cr. 


ci 1 


CO 




cr. Ci 




s 


CO 


+ 




1 






CO C^ ^ "^ (M -^ 'X t^ O 


CO CC - CD CI O CC 


-H 


^ 


o 


^ 


CO 




O' o o 


tx CO (M r-H -t* o CO a: ci 


UO .-; CO CO r- CO -<< 






o 






^ 


■~ ^ l2 


c r^ CO a: o r-- d 'C CO 


CD CO CC ,-; d -* CO 


r^i 


d 


d 


'-^ 


o -, 




O' '^ '-3 


r- Ol -" to CO ri (M X) 


t^ >o .— »c; CO CI o 


(CI 




CI 




d CO 




r^; CI CO 


cr. CO CO CO 1-. 


C CC CI i-l 












n 






""* 


?» 


s 


1 






>. 




1— ( C. Ol l> -" to O X Cl 


CD CO O CI cr. CC — 


-* 


^ 




^ 


CO 


c: O o 


»- -^- X. .,0 CO CI -?- r-. o 




CO 




It- 


c 


t- p 


^ 


^ — =: 


d X c -—1 to «(0 d r- d 


rj CO ;^ d d C: -" 




d 


d 










CO X O CI GO CO CI X 




d 




t^ 


CI 1^ 


d r-i 








c ^ CI "^ ■ 










Cl 






i* ?0 




cr. 








1 


^ 










CO 


1 








' ' li 




X 

" 




















t*. 
























a 


g 


§ 




_£ 
























, . . :| 3 
















s • . • ,: 5 b -^ ■ 


^'.^8.1 


jl 




o 


:»> 






















►^ C3 , , . ra ^ -7- o 


l..Pil 


lb 






*^ 


u 




« 3 


=^ 3=^2 
1 c ci-n = a- 

i « u ,j, Ci o o c '^ .S 

to 


^ ^ u ,jj ^ o .^ 'o 

i ?^ ? t» 


•5 j; 

? "5 


c3 

so 


a 
o 




o 3 

S 3 

II 



63 

A consideration of the foregoing investigations, and comparison 
of the results with those of the standard series, show tliat under 
the use of food consisting only of starch and water, the following 
effects ensued. 

Kidneys. — The whole quantity of urine was lessened, as was also 
the amount of its solid matter, and that of each constituent (urea, 
uric acid, chlorine, and sulphuric and phosphoric acids). The 
residue of solid matter remaining after the deduction of the sum of 
the above named substances was, however, greatly increased. 

The diminution in the quantity of urine eliminated, vras partly 
due to the fact that there was a less amount of fluids ingested than 
during the preliminary series, and partly, that the food was not of 
a character to maintain the several solid constituents at their ordi- 
nary normal amounts. It was from this latter cause that so great 
a reduction took place in the quantity of urea, uric acid, chlorine, 
and sulphuric and phosphoric acids. During the present investi- 
gations, these substances must have been entirely derived from the 
disintegrated tissues of the body; the food containing no matter 
from which they could have been elaborated. 

Tlie increase of solid residue was probably owing to the sugar 
present, and, perhaps, to some other substance containing a large 
proportion of carbon. The increased depth of color observed in 
the urine, supports this latter hypothesis. Eecent investigations 
have almost completely established the fact, that the coloring matter 
of the urine is a vehicle for the removal of carbon which has not 
been eliminated by other channels.' 

The fact that sugar was detected in the urine after a few days' 
use of the starch, is important physiologically, and must have no 
little bearing upon the pathology of a disease as yet but little un- 
derstood. 

According to Bernard,^ sugar in the animal economy has an 
internal and external origin, the liver being the organ by which it 
is formed in the sj^stem, and the food furnishing that derived from 
without. This physiologist is, however, of opinion (and he adduces 
many striking experiments in support of this theory), that normally 
the sugar taken into the system with the food, and which enters the 
portal vein, never reaches the general circulation, but is destroyed 

. ' Bird. Urinary Deposits, p. 88. 
^ Le(,'ons de Pliysiologie experimentale. Cours de semestre d'hivers, 1854, 1855. 
The reader is referred to this work for Bernard's views in full. 



64 

bj the liver, and transformed into an emulsive substance, possess- 
ing none of the chemical or physical characteristics of sugar. The 
sugar of the food, therefore, is never normally found as a consti- 
tuent of the urine. To this rule he makes an exception as regards 
cases of fasting, and the subsequent ingestion of a large quantity of 
sugar. Then, he states, absorption from the intestines taking place 
with increasing energy, a great quantity of sugar is thrown upon 
the liver, and, being more than it is able to transform, the excess 
passes into the main circulation, and is found in the nrine. 

The present investigations, it is seen, are entirely opposed to 
Bernard's doctrine of the perfect destruction of the alimentary 
sugar by the liver, as it is not probable the sugar found in my 
urine could have had anj^ other origin than the food which was 
transformed into this substance in the intestines, and absorbed as 
such into the circulation. 

In obtaining this result, I am not altogether alone. Yon Becker 
has definitely established the fict, that the amount of sugar in the 
blood is influenced by the character of the food, and Uhle and Leli- 
mann found it to appear in the urine of rabbits after the injection 
of a solution containing it into the blood. 

I am disposed to regard the appearance of sugar in the urine, 
ensuing upon the excessive use of amylaceous food, to be due to a 
deficient relative amount of oxygen in the blood. This hypotliesis 
may be more clearly set forth by recalling the facts, that before 
assimilation, the starch taken as food is transformed into dextrin, 
then into glucose or grape sugar, and is chiefly under this form ab- 
sorbed into the system. The sugar, after its entrance into the blood- 
vessels (provided a sufficient amount of oxygen be brought into 
chemical contact with it), is, after undergoing continued metamor- 
phosis, entirely decomposed into carbonic acid and water, and, as 
such, is eliminated from the pulmonary mucous membrane. A de- 
ficiency of oxygen causes a partial interruption of this process, and 
a portion of the sugar is merely metamorphosed into fat, and under 
this form remains in the sj^stem. A still greater deficiency of 
oxygen, or, what amounts to the same, a corresponding increase of 
the quantity of sugar in the blood, would cause a portion of this 
latter substance entirel}^ to escape metamorphosis, and this poition 
would make its appearance as a constituent of the urine if aug- 
mented beyond a definite amount. In support of this theory are 
to be adduced the numerous carefully conducted investigations of 
Dechambre, from which it appears that sugar is constantlj^ to be 



65 

met with in the urine of the aged as an effect of deficient h?ema- 
tosis. It is well known that the use of feculent food invariably 
increases the proportion of this substance in diabetic urine. 

Intestines. — Tlie quantity of feces was reduced, as was also that of 
each of its constituents determined. 

The decrease in the total amount of feces was due to the facts, 
that starch is a substance of easy digestibility, and that no indi- 
gestible substances were taken into the system. 

The reduction in the amounts of ether, alcohol, and water ex- 
tracts, was also mainl}^ owing to the character of the aliment. As 
no fat was taken with the food, it would seem that the first of these 
was present in greater amount tlian could have been expected, un- 
less we adopt the hypothesis that farinaceous food is converted into 
fat in the intestines; to which theory the experiments of Boussiu- 
gault on ducks are directly at variance. 

The weight of the body is seen to have declined altogether 
469.71 grains, not counting, in this calculation, the weight of the 
blood abstracted for analysis. This loss is much less than the 
drain from the waste of the nitrogenous tissues, and shows that a 
very considerable amount of new matter must have been deposited 
within the system. The chemical constitution of starch forbids the 
idea that this material could have been of a nature to serve for the 
renovation of the worn-out tissues of the body. It must, on the 
contrary, have consisted of fat, derived from the metamorphosis of 
the amylaceous food. The slight loss of weight observed shows, 
therefore, that the starch was assimilated not only in quantity suf- 
ficient for the immediate wants of the system, but also in such an 
amount as to allow the deposition of fat to such an extent as, within 
a few grains, to compensate for the total loss through the nitro- 
genous constituents of the excretions. The actual increase observed 
in tlie temperature of the body, and several of the pathological 
occurrences, also show that there was no deficiency of carbon in the 
system. 

E/fect upon the Constitution of the Blood. — The annexed table exhi- 
bits the results of the analysis of the blood on the 1st and 10th 
days of the experiments. 



66 



Table YIT. 



1000 parts of serum — 


1st 
day. 


lOth 
clay. 

920.81 
79.19 


1000 parts of blood- 


1st 
day. 


lOth 
day. 


Water 

Solids 


907.34 
92.66 


Water 

Solids 


779.33 796.49 
220.77 203.51 


Albumen .... 
Extractive . . . 
Soluble salts . . 


75.0- 

6.18 

10.72 


63.45 

12.35 

2.12 


Fibrin 

Blood-corpuscles 
Albumen .... 
Extractive . . . 


1.99 3.15 

141.18 132.60 

63.66 55.96 

4.84 11.25 


Whole quant inorg. salts 


11.98 


2.89 

i 


Soluble salts .... 
Whole quant, inorg. salts 
Fat 


9.31 1.87 

10.42 2.05 

1.83' 2.74 



From this table it is seen that, in the serum, the water was in- 
creased in quantity, and the solids proportionally diminished. The 
albumen and salts were reduced in amount, whilst the extractive 
was very much increased. 

In the whole blood, the proportion of water was likewise in- 
creased, and that of the solids lessened. The fibrin, extractive, 
and fat, were augmented ; the blood-corpuscles, albumen, and salts 
diminished. 

IMost of these results were to have been anticipated. The most 
important of -them are the increase in the fibrin, extractive, and fat. 

So many different views of the value and character of the fibrin 
of the blood are held by physiologists, that I merely state the fact 
of its occurrence in this fluid in increased amount after farinaceous 
diet, without attempting to account for it. Whether fibrin is a 
substance of the ascending or descending grade of metamorphosis, 
is as yet fir from determination. 

The increase in the amount of fat is sufficiently accounted for by 
the character of the food, and might have been anticipated, if the 
theory given explanatory of the cause of the presence of sugar in 
the urine be regarded as correct. 1'he diminished amount of fat 
in the blood after the albuminous diet, and its increase after an 
amylaceous one, show that the proportion of this substance in the 
circulating fluid is subject to variation with the character of the 
ingesta ; a circumstance with which the experiments of Boussin- 
gault' are at variance. 

The increase in the proportion of the extractive, Avas probably 
due to some carbonaceous substance present in augmented quan- 
tity. 

' Op. cit., p. 281, et seq. 



67 

Upon the whole, if further evidence of the incapability of starch 
to sustain for any length of time health or life in the human 
subject were wanting, the present investigations would appear to 
furnish it. The value of starch is, however, very great, for, not- 
withstanding the derangement of the health, both physical and 
mental, produced by strict adherence to a diet of this substance, it 
is perceived that but slight loss of weight occurred. I'his latter 
fact, resulting as it did from the deposition of fat, is not to be 
regarded as an entirely normal result. Nevertheless, it is a most 
valuable indication that farinaceous food fulfils the condition of 
supplying a sufficiency of carbon to the system. 



III. 
GUM. 

The chemical constitution of gum differs from that of starch, only 
in containing two additional atoms of both hydrogen and oxygen. 
It is never found as a component part of the bodies of animals, and 
of the vegetable substances ordinarily used as food by man, few, if 
any, contain it. It is, however, occasionally employed in the sick- 
room, from an idea, formerly yerj prevalent and not yet entirely 
extinct, that it possesses great nutritive power, and is sometimes 
met with as an ingredient of certain sweet-meats. 

Notwithstanding that it is exceedingly soluble in water, the re- 
corded experiments of several physiologists tend to show, that gum 
is possessed of little or no nutritive value, or capability of support- 
ing respiration, owing to its almost complete indigestibility. Thus, 
Boussingault* fed a duck with tifty grammes of gum Arabic, and 
found forty-six in the excrements, and Frerichs, Blondlot, and Leh- 
raann,^ found that neither the saliva nor gastric juice exercised any 
digestive effect upon this substance. 

With the object of contributing to the more complete elucidation 
of the subject, the following investigations were instituted. My 
original intention was to have continued them, if possilde, ten days, 
as in the former two series; but, owing to the debility and great 

' Memoires de Chimie agricole et de Physiologie, p. 232. 
2 Lelimanu's Physiological Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 386. 



68 

derangement of health produced, I was obliged, very much to my 
regret, to discontinue them at the end of the fourth day. 

Pure gum Arabic was the article used duriug these investiga- 
tions. It was ingested dissolved in water (the proportion of this 
liquid entering into its composition having been previously ascer- 
tained). The figures relating to the gum refer to the dry sub- 
stance, and those indicating the quantity of water, to the whole 
amount of this liquid taken into the stomach uncombined, and 
with the gum. The water was distilled, or rain-water. No other 
food was taken. 

The conditions of physical and mental exercise, sleep, &c., were 
as far as possible the same as in the previous series. I was unable, 
however, to adhere as rigidly to the standard system as I desired. 
The deviations are noticed in the proper places. Twenty-five days 
elapsed between the termination of the starch series of investiga- 
tions and the commencement of the present. At this latter time 
my health appeared to be very good. At the end of the twenty- 
four hours immediately preceding my weight was 225.33 pounds. 



Ingesta. 

8 A.M. 
1 P. M. 

5 " 

Total 



Gum 



FIRST DAY. 

. . 2300 
. . 3000 
, . 3000 



Water 



8800 



Egesta. 

Kiditeys. 

Whole quantity of urine 20728.01 
Water 
Solids 

Urea . 
Uric acid . 
Chlorine 
Sulphuric acid . 
Phosphoric acid 
Kesidue 
Ldesthv s. 

Whole quantity of feces 8329.U 
Water .... 
Solids .... 



. 9000 
10000 
10000 



29000 



20157.03 

571.58 



330.15 

7.45 

4(3.28 

21.57 

24.13 

142. 



3284.34 
5244.80 



69 



Ether extract . . . . '81.55 

Alcohol extract . . . 30.27 

Water extract .... '5030.36 

Insoluble residue . . . 152.62 

Skin and Lungs. 

Total loss through these channels 12422.94. 

My pulse at 7 A.M. was 80, at 2 P.M. 84, and at 10 P.M. 89.— 
Mean 84.33. 

At the same hours, the temperature of the body was respectively 
98.5°, 98°, and 97.5°.— Mean 98°. 

At 3 P.M. I took 1359.31 grains of blood from the median 
basilic vein. This, upon analysis, was found to be constituted as 
follows: — 



1000 parts of serum 
Water . 
Solids . 



Albumen 
Extractive 
Soluble salts 



907.43 
92.57 



77.36 
5.15 
9.22 

91.73 
.84 



Diiference 
The whole quantity of inorganic salts 
in 1000 parts of serum was 11.01. 



1000 parts of blood- 
Water . 
Solids . 



Fibrin . 
Blood-corpuscles 
Albumen 
Extractive 
Soluble salts . 



778.04 
221.96 



2.05 

138.22 

66.32 

4.08 

7.96 



218.63 
Difference • . . 3.33 
The whole quantity of inorganic salts 
in 1000 parts of blood was 10.49. 1000 
parts of defibrinated blood contained 2.13 
of fat. 

The weight of the body at the end of the twenty-four hours was 
224.57 pounds; being a loss of .82 pound, or 5740 grains; of which 
1359.31 are to be ascribed to the blood abstracted for analysis, 
leaving a balance of 4380.69 grains as the actual loss from the ex- 
cretions. 

The mean height of the barometer on this day was 28.324 inches, 
and of the thermometer 31.33°. 

About the middle of this day I felt quite hungry. After eating 
the gum at 5 P. M., this feeling subsided, but returned again in the 
course of the evening, I had severe colicky pains in the lower 
part of the abdomen after eating the second meal of gum. Had 
two evacuations from the intestinal canal; one at 9 P.M., and one 
at 6 J A. M. The feces of both were hard, of a dark brown color, 
and of a very strong acid reaction. 



70 



Ingesta. 
8 A.M. 
1 P. M. 
5 " 



Gum 



SECOND DAY. 

. . 2150 
. . 2100 
. . 3000 



7250 



Total " 

Egesta. 
Kidneys. 

AYhole quantity of urine 21385.97. 
Water 
Solids 

Urea . 
Uric acid 
Chlorine 
Sulphuric acid 
Phosphoric acid 
Residue 
Intestines. 

Whole quantity of feces 9350.28. 
Water 
Solids 

Ether extract 
Alcohol extract 
AVater extract , 
Insoluble residue 



AYater 



. 9800 
10000 
10050 



29350 



20934.7-1 
451.23 



301.2-4 
8.20 
21.15 
12.05 
13.35 
95.24 



3975.09 
5375.19 

17.43 

12.84 

5297.62 

47.20 



Skin and Lungs. 

Total loss through these channels 11883.75. 

At 7 A. M. on this day my pulse was 88, at 2 P. M. 88, and at 10 
P.M. 94.— Mean 90. 

At the corresponding hours the temperature of the body was re- 
spectively 97°, 97.5°, and 97.5°.— Mean 97.33°. 

At the termination of the twenty-four hours my weight was 
223.65 ; a loss of .86 pound, or 6020 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 28.706 inches, and of the 
thermometer 8°. 

The feeling of hunger was very strong on this day, and I expe- 
rienced a good deal of debility. Both the hunger and weakness 
became less a short time after eating, but they soon returned. The 
pains in the abdomen still continued. They became more severe 



71 



after eating. Two evacuations of the bowels occurrel, one at 2J 
P.M., tbe other at 7 P.M. They were both hard, and were of a 
much lighter color than on the previous day. Eeaction strongly 
acid. At night my sleep was disturbed by unpleasant dreams, and 
I awoke in the mornino; with severe headache and hio;h fever. 

The saliva was scant}', and of a slight acid reaction to litmus 
paper. 

THIRD DAY. 

Ingest A. 

8 A.M. Gum . . .2000 Water 

1 P. M. 

5 " " . 



Total 



2000 
2150 
3150 

7800 



10000 
. 9890 
10230- 



30120 



282.64 
9.27 
6.33 
6.97 
7.09 
74.49 



Egesta. 
Kidneys. 

Whole quantity of urine 23721.50. 

Water 23334.71 

Solids 386.79 

Urea . 
Uric acid 
Chlorine 
Sulphuric acid 
Phosphoric acid 
Residue 
Intestines. 

Whole quantity of feces 9783.56. 

Water 3152.09 

Solids 6631.47 

Ether extract .... 10.72 

Alcohol extract ,' . . 9.55 

Water extract .... 6581.40 

Insoluble residue . ... 29.80 

Skin and Lungs. 

Total loss from these channels 10704.94. 

At 7 A.M. my pulse was 104, at 2 P.M. 112, and at 10 P.M. 
110.— Mean 108.66. 

At the same hours the temperature of the body was respectively 
99.5°, 101°, and 101°.— Mean 100.50°. 

At the end of the twenty-four hours my weight was 222.68; 



72 

showing a loss from the preceding day of .97 ])Ound, equivalent to 
6790 grains. 

The mean height of the barometer was 29.26-i inches, and of the 
thermometer 19°. 

The debility and hunger were extreme on this day. There was 
also considerable febrile excitement, attended with heat and dry- 
ness of the skin, and headache. I was too much indisposed to read 
any, and the physical exercise was likewise reduced. In tlie after- 
noon, I was obliged to lie down, and at that time slept about one 
hour. 

Three operations from the bowels occurred, one at 12 M., one at 
4 J P.M., and one at 7 J P.M. The feces were very solid, and of a 
light clay color. I was very much annoyed by the abdominal 
pains. At night I was restless, and slept but little. In the morn- 
ino;, awoke feverish, and unrefreshed. 



IXGESTA. 

8 A.M. 
1 P. M. 
6 " 



Gum 



FOURTH DAY. 

. . 2000 
. . 2400 
. . 2500 



(J900 . 



Total 

Egesta. 

Kidneys. 

Whole quantity of urine 20516.31. 
Water 
Solids 

Urea . 
Uric acid 
Chlorine 
Sulphuric acid 
Phosphoric acid 
Eesidue 
Intestines. 

Whole quantity of feces 10961. 
Water 
Solids 

Ether extract 
Alcohol extract 
Water extract . 
Insoluble residue 



Water 



. 9000 
. 9500 
1L500 



80000 



20163.88 
352.43 



274.50 
9.35 
3.20 
3. HO 
4.55 
56.98 



3529.71 
7435.02 



10.14 

8.30 

7390.10 

26.48 



73 



SJcin and Lvngs. 

Total loss by these cliauiiels 12656.45. 

At 7 A.M. on this day my pulse was 102, at 2 P.M. 99, and at 
10 P.M. 108.— Mean 103. 

At the corresponding hours, the temperature of the body was 
respectively 97.5°, 98°, and 97.5°.— Mean 97.66°. 

Perceiving that I should not be able to continue the investiga- 
tions after this day, I abstracted at 3 P. M., 1272.51 grains of blood 
from the median basilic vein. The analysis yielded the following 
results : — 



1000 parts of serum — 
Water . 
Solids . 



Albumen 
Extractive 
Soluble salts 



912 84 
87.16 



72.40 
8.23 
5.11 

85.74 
1.42 



DiflFerence 
The whole quantity of inorganic salts 
in 1000 parts of serum was 6.89. 



1000 parts of blood- 
Water . 
Solids . 



Fibrin . 
Blood-corpuscles 
Albumen 
Ixtractive 
Soluble salts . 



784.35 
215.65 



. 2.71 
135.64 
. 62.20 
. 7.39 
. 4.01 

211.95 
. 3.70 



Difference 
The whole quantity of inorganic salts 
in 1000 parts of blood was 6.37. 1000 
j parts of defibrinated blood contained 1.80 
i of fat. 

The weight of the body, at the end of the twenty-four hours, 
was 221.63 pounds; a loss, therefore, of 1.05 pound, or 7350 grains; 
of which, 1272.51 are accounted for by the blood abstracted, so that 
there remain 6077.49 grains as the loss by the excretions. 

The mean heights of the barometer and thermometer were re- 
spectively 29.369 inches, and 8°. 

The hunger, debility, and febrile excitement were very great on 
this day ; bat not more so than on the previous day. The pains 
in the abdomen were severe, and lasted nearly the whole period of 
twenty-four hours. There was also some tenderness of the abdomen 
on pressure. Eating the gum failed now to relieve, even for a short 
time, the sensation of hunger. Four evacuations occurred, from the 
intestinal canal; one at 11 A. M., one at 3 P.M., one at 9 P. M., 
and the other at the regular hour. All were very solid, and of a 
light clay color. It required a good deal of straining to eject the 
feces. I omitted all study on this day, and took but a trifling 
amount of physical exercise. The greater part of the afternoon 
was passed in bed. At night, I did not sleep at all well. 



74 



Fearful of induciDg disease if I persevered with the experiments, 
and also what was perhaps a more powerful inducement, unable 
longer to refrain from other food, I discontinued them at the end 
of this day. 

About -i P. M. of the fifth day from the commencement I felt 
great weight and pain in the rectum, but was unable to pass any- 
thing at stool. I therefore took an enema of warm water, and in 
a few minutes ejected a large quantity of hard fecal matter streaked 
with blood. The water extract of this amounted to 3(352.45 grains. 
No other examination of the excrement was made. 

I felt very much indisposed for several days after the conclusion 
of the researches, but by care, and prudence in diet, no very un- 
toward result ensued. 

The results of this series are contained in the accompanying 
table :— 

Table YIII. 





ist day. 


2d day. 1 


3d day. 


4th day. 


Total. 


Mean. 


Ingesta. 














Gum .... 


8300 


7250 


7300 


6900 


29750 


7437.50 


Water .... 


29000 


29350 


30120 


30000 


118470 


29617.50 


Total . 


37300 


36600 i 


37420 


36900 


148220 


37055.00 


Egesta. 














Kidneys — 














Whole quantity urine 


20728.61 


21385.97 


23721.50 


20516.31 


86152.39 


21538.09 


Water 


201.^7.03 


20934.74 . 


23334.71 


20163.88 


84390.36 


21097.59 


Solids 


571.58 


451.23 


380.79 


352.43 


1762.03 


440.60 


Urea 


330.15 


301.24 


282.64 


274.50 


1188.53 


297.13 


Uric acids 


7.45 


8.20 


9.27 


9.35 


35.27 


8.81 


Chlorine 


46.28 


21.15 


6.33 


3.20 


76.86 


19.21 


Sulphuric acid 


21.57 


12.05 


6.97 


3.90 


44.49 


11.12 


Phosphoric acid 


24.13 


13.35 


7.09 


4.55 


49.12 


12.28 


Residue 


142.00 


95.24 


74.49 


56.93 


288.66 


67.16 


Iiitpsfiues — 














Whole quantit}' feces 


8529.14 


9350.28 


9783.56 


10964.73 


38627.73 


9656.93 


Water 


3284.34 


3975.09 


3152.09 


3529.71 


13941.23 


3485.30 


Solids 


5244.80 


5375.19 


6631.47 


7435.02 


24686.60 


6171.62 


Ether extract 


31.55 


17.43 


10.72 


10.14 


79.84 


19.96 


Alcohol extract 


30.27 


12.84 


9.55 


1 8.30 


60.96 


15.24 


W^ater extract 


6030.36 


5297.62 


6581.40 


7390.10 


24299.48 


6074.87 


Insoluble residue . 


152.62 


47.20 


29.80 


26.48 


255.10 


63.71 


Shin and Lungs — 














Tot.ll loss by these ) 
channels . ) 


12422.94 


11883.75 


10704.94 


11496.45 


47668.08 


11917.02 


Total egesta 


41880.59 


42620.00 


44210.00 


1 42977.49 


171688.08 


42922.02 


Variation in weight 


—4380.69 


—6020.00 


-6790.00 


—6077.49 


-23268.18 


— 6817<04 


Pulse .... 


84.33 


90 


108.66 


103 




96.49 


Temperature of body . 


98° 


97.33° 


100.60° 


1 97.66° 




98.37° 


Barometer . 


28.324 


28.706 


29.264 


29.369 




28.915 


Thermometer 

1 


31.33^ 


8° 


19° 


8° 




16.58° 



75 

In considering these investigations, it is seen that the following 
effects ensued: — 

^/(/?ie^s.— The whole quantity of urine and the proportion of 
water were increased ; the solids and amounts of each constituent 
were very much reduced. 

Intestines. — The whole quantity of feces, the water, solids, and 
water extract were enormously increased over the normal average 
and the means of either of the other series of researches. The ether 
and alcohol extracts were decreased in quantity. 

Skin and Lungs. — The loss from these sources was less than under 
either the albumen or starch series, and was probably also below 
the normal extent. 

The loss of weight in the body was very great. 

The pulse was increased in frequency, as was also the tempera- 
ture of the body. 

The following table shows the alterations induced in the compo- 
sition of the blood : — 



Table IX. 



1000 parts of scrum — • 


1st 
d:ty. 


4th 
day. 


1000 parts of blood- 


1st 
d:iy. 


•Ith 
day. 


Water 

Solids 


907.43 

92.57 

77.36 
5.15 
9.22 


912.84 
87.16 


Water 

Solids 


778.04, 7S4.3f 
221.96 215.65 


Albumen .... 
Extractive . . . 
Soluble salts . . 


72.46 

8.23 
5.11 


; Fibrin 

Blood-corpuscles 
Albumen .... 
Extractive 


2.05 

138.22 

66.32 

4.08 


2.71 

135.64 

62.20 

7.39 


Inorganic salts . . 


11.01 


6.89 


Inorganic salts 

Fat 


10.40 

2.i;i 


. 6.37 

1.80 



From this table it appears that in the serum the proportion of 
water was augmented, and that of the solids was diminished, and 
that the albumen and salts were reduced in amount, and the ex- 
tractive increased. In the whole blood, the same effects ensued 
with the addition that there was a slight increase in the amount of 
fibrin, and a decrease in the blood-corpuscles and fot. 

It is evident from these researches that but little, if any, of the 
gum taken into the stomach was absorbed into the circulation. In 
all, 29,750 grains of gum were ingested. The water extract of the 
feces, which consisted almost entirely of gum, amounted during the 
four days of the investigations to 24,299.48 grains. To this sum 
should of course be added the water extract obtained the dny after 



76 

the conclusion of the experiments (3352.4:5 grains), making a total 
of 27,651,93 grains, which, with the exception of very small quan- 
tities of other matters, consisted entirely of gum. A balance of 
2098.07 grains remains, but it is probable that a considerable por- 
tion, if not the whole of this, was subsequently passed from the 
bowels, as hard lumps continued to be discharged from this channel 
for several days. 

The great loss of Aveight (nearly 3.33 pounds) is not surprising 
after a knowledge of the above facts. AVater was alwa3^s taken in 
such quantities as desired, or of course the decrease of weight would 
have been much greater. The fever, hot skin, &c., were indicative 
of irritation and debility. 

If we admit the non-absorption of the gum, the solid constituents 
of the urine must have been entirely derived from the effete tissues 
of the body. The amounts of each are therefore probably such as 
would have been excreted had no food been taken into the stomach. 
The carbonic acid of the expired air could have had no other source 
than the oxidation of the fat of the body, which also furnished a 
portion of the aqueous vapor expired. 

The alterations in the proportions of the several constituents of 
the blood are also doubtless such as would have taken place under 
inanition. The increase observed in the quantity of extractive and 
fibrin is important, but may have been accidental. 

From these researches I conclude that gum, so far from having 
any value as an alimentary substance, is positively injurious, owing 
to the fact of its clogging the intestines, and thus proving a cause 
of irritation. As an article of food for the sick, its use should be 
especially condemned. 

In order to facilitate comparison of the results of the several fore- 
going series of experiments, the following table of the means of 
each course is subjoined : — 



77 
Table X. 





Ordinary diet. 


Albumen. 


Starch. 


Gum. 


Ingesta. 

Solid 

Water 

Total .... 




8343.20 
24598.80 
32942.00 


10357.50 
26507.60 
36865.10 


7437.50 
29617.50 
37055.00 


Egesta. 
Kidntys — 

Whole quantity of urine 

Water 

Solids 

Urea .... 

Uric acid .... 

Chlorine .... 

Sulphuric acid . 

Phosphoric acid 

Residue .... 


20898.71 

19801.13 

1097.58 

694.63 

11.67 

138.13 

45.18 

55.85 

194.37 


17738.50 

16919.62 

988.87 

715.19 

20.76 

8.86 

16 92 

22.04 

215.19 


18427.67 

17910.69 

516.98 

215.35 

7.53 

16.71 

9.73 

13.66 

252.86 


21538.09 

21097.59 

440.50 

297.13 

8.81 

19.21 

11.12 

12.28 

67.16 


Intesthves — 

Whole quantity of feces 

Water 

Solids 

Ether extract 

Alcohol extract '. 

Water extract . 

Insoluble residue 


2293.92 

1673.99 

619.92 

90.60 

95.56 

129.55 

303.18 


3558.36 
2968.35 
590.02 
13.65 
114.58 
102.35 
358.94 


1107.80 

886.21 

221.59 

36.30 

31.65 

22.69 

130.95 


9656.93 

3485.30 

6171.62 

19.96 

15.24 

6074.87 

63.71 


Skin and Lungs — 

Total loss by these channels 




14475.65 


17348.54 


11917.02 


Total egesta .... 




35841.42 


36879.07 


42922.02 


Variation in weight' 




—28994.20 


—4697.00 


—5817.04 


Pulse 

Temperature of body 


84.23 

97.83" 


91.83 
97.39° 


87.42 
98.81° 


96.49 

98.37° 


Barometer .... 
Thermometer .... 




29.139 
40.41° 


29.253 
6.03° 


28.915 
16.58° 



Resume. 

From the preceding investigations, I think the following conclu- 
sions (several of v/hich, however, are already well established) fairly 
deducible, and applicable to the human subject: — 

1. That albumen may be assimilated into the system in such 
quantity as to furnish a sufl&cieucy of both nitrogen and carbon to 
the organism. 

2. That under the use of an exclusively albuminous diet the 
nitrogenous constituents of the urine are increased over the ordi- 



' Owing to neglect to ascertain the weight of the body before commencing the 
preliminary series of experiments, the mean variation cannot be given. 

6 



78 

nary average amounts, tliougli not in proportion to the quantity 
of albumen absorbed into the circulation. 

3. That either some other means than the urine exist for the 
elimination of nitrogen from the system, or the excess (over two- 
thirds) is retained in the organism, even when the body is rapidly 
decreasing in weight. 

4. That the continued use of albumen as an article of food 
increases the proportion of this substance (and of fibrin) in the 
blood, and in a short time causes it to appear in the urine. 

5. That whilst pure albumen cannot be regarded as of itself 
adequate to supply the several wants of the system, there is no 
reason why, when associated with suitable inorganic matters, it 
should not support both life and health. 

6. That starch can be assimilated by the absorbents in more than 
sufficient quantity to sustain the respiratory function. 

7. That under its use the nitrogenous constituents of the urine 
are very much reduced in amount, even below what would proba- 
bly occur during inanition, and, that although starch is not capable 
of nourishing the tissues, it is yet serviceable, aside from its heat 
producing power, in retarding their destructive metamorphosis. 

8. That the continued use of highly amylaceous food causes the 
appearance of sugar in the urine. 

9. That under the use of such aliments the nitrogenous consti- 
tuents of the blood are diminished, and the carbonaceous increased. 

10. That gum is altogether incapable of assimilation, and there- 
fore possesses no calorifacient or nutritive power whatever, but is, 
on the contrary, a source of irritation to the digestive organs. 

11. That in consequence of the above fact, the solids of the urine 
during the immediately preceding researches, were entirely derived 
from the waste of the tissues of the body, and the carbon exhaled 
by the lungs from the consumption of its fat. 

12. That gum, when exclusively used as food, from the irritation 
it causes in the intestinal canal, and the fact of its non-assimilation, 
induces more constitutional disturbance than either starch or albu- 
men, and that under a similar condition starch is more productive 
of ill consequences than albumen. 



79 

The investigations wliicli it was the special object of this memoir 
to detail, are now concluded; and are respectfully submitted to the 
Association. 

In an essay of this character, whose chief aim is to add to the 
sum of knowledge, the labors of others could at most receive but a 
slight notice, and must of necessity frequently be passed over with- 
out even a word of recognition. Yet no one appreciates more 
highly than myself the self-devotion and constant striving to 
enlarge the bounds of science, which animate so many physiolo- 
gists of the present day, and which have already yielded such bril- 
liant results. Had I, however, attempted to do justice to even a 
tithe of their contributions, I should have converted this memoir 
into a treatise, and might have lost sight of all originality in my 
efforts to make a successful compilation. With what success I 
have prosecuted these inquiries is not for me to determine. I 
cannot, however, think them valueless, for, if they only excite 
others throughout our land to investigate in living beings the 
operations of nature, they will still be beneficial to the cause of 
that science which constitutes the basis of all medical knowledge. 
From the united labors of those who seek by original investiga- 
tions to build up a positive science, where there is yet so much 
darkness and uncertainty, what may we not expect? May we not 
confidently look forward to the perfect enlightenment of our minds 
in regard to the most obscure of the vital processes ? Though we 
may often be led astray by experiments conducted without due 
care, and with insufficient knowledge, they yet afford the only 
means by which we can successfully woi?»!but the sublime problems 
which the Great Creator of all has proposed for our solution. 




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